Planning sleep-related animal and translational research

With the aim of improving human health, scientists have been using an approach referred to as translational research, in which they aim to convey their laboratory discoveries into clinical applications to help prevent and cure disease. Such discoveries often arise from cellular, molecular, and physiological studies that progress to the clinical level. Most of the translational work is done using animal models that share common genes, molecular pathways, or phenotypes with humans. In this article, we discuss how translational work is carried out in various animal models and illustrate its relevance for human sleep research and sleep-related disorders.

Implication of chromosome 13 on hypertension and associated disorders in Lyon hypertensive rats.

BACKGROUND: Hypertension and associated disorders are major risk factors for cardiovascular disease. The Lyon hypertensive rat (LH) is a genetically hypertensive strain that exhibits spontaneous and salt-sensitive hypertension, exaggerated proteinuria, high body weight, hyperlipidemia, and elevated insulin-to-glucose ratio. Previous genetic mapping identified quantitative trait loci (QTLs) influencing blood pressure (BP) on rat chromosome 13 (RNO13) in several models of hypertension. METHODS: To study the effects of a single chromosome on the mapped traits, we generated consomic strains by substituting LH RNO13 with that of the normotensive Brown Norway (BN) strain (LH-13BN) and reciprocal consomics by substituting a BN RNO13 with that of LH (BN-13LH). These reciprocal consomic strains, as well as the two parental strains were characterized for BP, metabolic and morphological parameters. RESULTS: Compared with LH parents, LH-13BN rats showed decreased mean BP (up to -24 mmHg on 2% NaCl in the drinking water), urine proteins and lipids, and increased body weight. Differences between BN-13LH and BN rats were much smaller than those observed between LH-13BN and LH rats, demonstrating the effects of the highly resistant BN genome background. Plasma renin activity was not affected by the substitution of RNO13, despite the significant BP differences. CONCLUSION: The present work demonstrates that RNO13 is a determinant of BP, proteinuria, and plasma lipids in the LH rat. The distinct phenotypic differences between the consomic LH-13BN and the LH make it a powerful model to determine genes and pathways leading to these risk factors for cardiovascular and renal disease.

Retrospective study of ocular disorders in Amazon parrots

A retrospective study was conducted to identify the occurrence and types of ocular disorders in 57 Amazon parrots admitted to the Ophthalmology Service, Veterinary Teaching Hospital, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of São Paulo, Brazil from 1997 to 2006. The most frequent observed disorder was cataracts, present in 24 of the 114 examined eyes (57 parrots). Uveitis, ulcerative keratitis and keratoconjunctivitis were frequently diagnosed as well. The cornea was the most affected ocular structure, with 28 reported disorders. Uveal disorders also were commonly observed. Conjunctiva and eyelid disorders were diagnosed in lower frequency. Results suggest that cataracts are common and that cornea, lens and uvea are the most affected ocular structures in Amazon parrots.

Influence of tail biting on weight gain, lesions and condemnations at slaughter of finishing pigs

The present study assessed the association of tail-biting lesions in finishing pigs with weight gain, occurrence of locomotion or respiratory disorders and abscesses during finishing period, and carcass condemnation at slaughter. The study was carried out on 4 different farms. For each animal with a tail biting lesion, two control pigs were selected. The total number of animals in the study was 312, with 104 of them being tail-bitten. Tail lesions were classified according to the degree of severity into four scores: score 0 -normal tail withou lesion; score 1-3 - increasing lesion severity, and score 4 - healed lesions. Overall, the occurrence of severe tail lesions (score 3) varied from 55 to 73% of tail-bitten pigs among farms. On all farms, healing of tail lesions was observed in 95% to 100% of the animals at the evaluation performed within 41-43 days after the commencement of the study. In two out of the four evaluated farms, pigs with score of 3 showed lower weight gain (P<0.05) compared with score 0 pigs. Before slaughter, the occurrence of locomotion problems and nodules/abscesses was associated (P<0.05) with the presence of tail-biting lesions. At slaughter, tail-biting lesions were associated (P<0.05) with the presence of abscesses, lung lesions (pleuritis and embolic pneumonia) or arthritis in carcasses. Carcass condemnation was associated with the presence of tail-biting lesions (P<0.05). Overall, carcass condemnation rate was 21.4%, of which animals with tail-biting lesions accounted for 66.7% of condemnations. Among the animals diagnosed with cannibalism at farm level, only two had not healed their lesions at slaughter. The fact that there were a lot of carcass condemnations, despite the fact that tail-bitten animals had no more active lesions, suggests that different situations may be observed between the field and slaughter, reinforcing the need to analyze pigs both at farm and slaughter to allow proper assessment of losses related to tail biting. Collectively, the observations of the present study show that complications associated with tail-biting found in slaughterhouses are probably underestimating field prevalence.

Corrective shoeing in horses: analysis of the adaptation period to the new condition imposed

Corrective shoeing is a method commonly used to alter the locomotion pattern in animals or as therapy for various disorders of the locomotive system of horses. However, to date, there have been no scientific studies discussing the period during which animals adapt to this type of intervention. The goal of this study was to evaluate the horseshoe adaptation period with the toe or heel elevated by six degrees at 0, 48, and 96 hours after each type of shoeing. For this analysis, the horses were recorded while walking on a treadmill. Stride length and gait qualitative analyzes were performed using Dvideow software. The level of significance adopted was 5%. In the present study, there was no significant difference between the evaluation times; elevating the toe or heel by six degrees do not generates discomfort during locomotion, therefore, horses are able to return to a regular exercise or training routine immediately after shoeing.

Effect of Erythrina velutina and Erythrina mulungu in rats submitted to animal models of anxiety and depression

Erythrina velutina (EV) and Erythrina mulungu (EM), popularly used in Brazil as tranquilizing agents, were studied. The effects of acute and chronic oral treatment with a water:alcohol extract of EV (7:3, plant grounded stem bark; acute = 100, 200, 400 mg/kg; chronic = 50, 100, 200 mg/kg) were evaluated in rats (N = 11-12) submitted to the elevated T-maze (for avoidance and escape measurements) model of anxiety. This model was selected for its presumed capacity to elicit specific subtypes of anxiety disorders recognized in clinical practice: avoidance has been related to generalized anxiety and escape to panic. Additionally, animals were treated with the same doses of EV and EM (water:alcohol 7:3, inflorescence extract) and submitted to the forced swim test for the evaluation of antidepressant activity (N = 7-10). Both treatment regimens with EV impaired elevated T-maze avoidance latencies, without altering escape, in a way similar to the reference drug diazepam (avoidance 1, mean ± SEM, acute study: 131.1 ± 45.5 (control), 9.0 ± 3.3 (diazepam), 12.7 ± 2.9 (200 mg/kg), 28.8 ± 15.3 (400 mg/kg); chronic study: 131.7 ± 46.9 (control), 35.8 ± 29.7 (diazepam), 24.4 ± 10.4 (50 mg/kg), 29.7 ± 11.5 (200 mg/kg)). Neither EV nor EM altered measurements performed in the forced swim test, in contrast to the reference drug imipramine that significantly decreased immobility time after chronic treatment. These results were not due to motor alterations since no significant effects were detected in an open field. These observations suggest that EV exerts anxiolytic-like effects on a specific subset of defensive behaviors which have been associated with generalized anxiety disorder.

Cell therapy in dilated cardiomyopathy: from animal models to clinical trials

Dilated cardiomyopathy can be the end-stage form and common denominator of several cardiac disorders of known cause, such as hypertensive, ischemic, diabetic and Chagasic diseases. However, some individuals have clinical findings, such as an increase in ventricular chamber size and impaired contractility (classical manifestations of dilated cardiomyopathy) even in the absence of a diagnosed primary disease. In these patients, dilated cardiomyopathy is classified as idiopathic since its etiology is obscure. Nevertheless, regardless of all of the advances in medical, pharmacological and surgical procedures, the fate of patients with dilated cardiomyopathy (of idiopathic or of any other known cause) is linked to arrhythmic episodes, severe congestive heart failure and an increased risk of sudden cardiac death. In this review, we will summarize present data on the use of cell therapies in animal models of dilated cardiomyopathies and will discuss the few clinical trials that have been published so far involving patients affected by this disease. The animal models discussed here include those in which the cardiomyopathy is produced by genetic manipulation and those in which disease is induced by chemical or infectious agents. The specific model used clearly creates restrictions to translation of the proposed cell therapy to clinical practice, insofar as most of the clinical trials performed to date with cell therapy have used autologous cells. Thus, translation of genetic models of dilated cardiomyopathy may have to wait until the use of allogeneic cells becomes more widespread in clinical trials of cell therapies for cardiac diseases.

Caractérisation de la voie de signalisation AMPK/ACC dans le foie et l’intestin du Psammomys obesus, un modèle animal de résistance à l’insuline et de diabète de type 2

L’expansion des maladies métaboliques dans les sociétés modernes exige plus d’activités de recherche afin d’augmenter notre compréhension des mécanismes et l’identification de nouvelles cibles d’interventions cliniques. L’obésité, la résistance à l’insuline (RI) et la dyslipidémie, en particulier sont tous des facteurs de risque associés à la pathogenèse du diabète de type 2 (DT2) et des maladies cardiovasculaires. Ainsi, la dyslipidémie postprandiale, notamment la surproduction des lipoprotéines hépatiques et intestinales, contribue d’une façon significative à l’hypertriglycéridémie. Quoique plusieurs études cliniques et fondamentales chez l’homme et les modèles animaux aient mis en évidence les rôles importants joués par le foie et l’intestin dans la dyslipidémie, les mécanismes moléculaires en cause ne sont pas bien élucidés. L’une des voies principales régulant le métabolisme lipidique est la voie de la protéine kinase AMPK. L’épuisement de l’ATP intracellulaire entraîne une activation de l’AMPK qui va œuvrer pour rétablir l’équilibre énergétique en stimulant des voies génératrices d’ATP et en inhibant des voies anaboliques consommatrices d’ATP. Les effets positifs de l’activation de l’AMPK comprennent l’augmentation de la sensibilité à l’insuline dans les tissus périphériques, la réduction de l’hyperglycémie et la réduction de la lipogenèse, d’où son importance dans les interventions cliniques pour la correction des dérangements métaboliques. Il est à souligner que le rôle de l’AMPK dans le foie et l’intestin semble plus complexe et mal compris. Ainsi, la voie de signalisation de l’AMPK n’est pas bien élucidée dans les situations pathologiques telles que le DT2, la RI et l’obésité. Dans le présent projet, notre objectif consiste à caractériser le rôle de cette voie de signalisation dans la lipogenèse hépatique et dans le métabolisme des lipides dans l’intestin chez le Psammomys obesus, un modèle animal d’obésité, de RI et de DT2. À cette fin, 3 groupes d’animaux sont étudiés (i.e. contrôle, RI et DT2). En caractérisant la voie de signalisation de l’AMPK/ACC dans le foie, nous avons constaté une augmentation de l’expression génique des enzymes clés de la lipogenèse (ACC, FAS, SCD-1 et mGPAT) et des facteurs de transcription (ChREBP, SREBP-1) qui modulent leur niveau d’expression. Nos analyses détaillées ont révélé, par la suite, une nette augmentation de l’expression de l’isoforme cytosolique de l’ACC, ACC1 (impliqué dans la lipogenèse de novo) concomitante avec une invariabilité de l’expression de l’isoforme mitochondrial ACC2 (impliqué dans la régulation négative de la β-oxydation). En dépit d’un état adaptatif caractérisé par une expression protéique et une phosphorylation (activation) élevées de l’AMPKα, l’activité de la kinase qui phosphoryle et inhibe l’ACC reste très élevée chez les animaux RI et DT2. Au niveau de l’intestin grêle des animaux RI et DT2, nous avons démontré que l’augmentation de la lipogenèse intestinale est principalement associée avec une diminution de la voie de signalisation de l’AMPK (i.e. expression protéique et phosphorylation/activation réduites des deux isoformes AMPKα1 et AMPKα2). La principale conséquence de la diminution de l’activité AMPK est la réduction de la phosphorylation de l’ACC. Étant donné que le niveau d’expression totale d’ACC reste inchangé, nos résultats suggèrent donc une augmentation de l’activité des deux isoformes ACC1 et ACC2. En parallèle, nous avons observé une réduction de l’expression protéique et génique de la CPT1 [enzyme clé de la β-oxydation des acides gras (AG)]. L’ensemble de ces résultats suggère une inhibition de l’oxydation des AG concomitante avec une stimulation de la lipogenèse de novo. Enfin, nous avons démontré que l’intestin grêle est un organe sensible à l’action de l’insuline et que le développement de la résistance à l’insuline pourrait altérer les deux voies de signalisation (i.e. Akt/GSK3 et p38MAPK) essentielles dans plusieurs processus métaboliques. En conclusion, nos résultats indiquent que l’augmentation de la lipogenèse qui contribue pour une grande partie à la dyslipidémie dans la résistance à l’insuline et le diabète serait due, en partie, à des défauts de signalisation par l’AMPK. Nos observations illustrent donc le rôle crucial du système AMPK au niveau hépatique et intestinal, ce qui valide l’approche thérapeutique consistant à activer l’AMPK pour traiter les maladies métaboliques.

Physiopathologie des maladies métaboliques héréditaires des acyls-Coenzyme A révélée par l’étude d’un modèle animal déficient en 3-hydroxy-3-méthylglutaryl-Coenzyme A lyase

La plupart des conditions détectées par le dépistage néonatal sont reliées à l'une des enzymes qui dégradent les acyls-CoA mitochondriaux. Le rôle physiopathologique des acyls-CoA dans ces maladies est peu connue, en partie parce que les esters liés au CoA sont intracellulaires et les échantillons tissulaires de patients humains ne sont généralement pas disponibles. Nous avons créé une modèle animal murin de l'une de ces maladies, la déficience en 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA lyase (HL), dans le foie (souris HLLKO). HL est la dernière enzyme de la cétogenèse et de la dégradation de la leucine. Une déficience chronique en HL et les crises métaboliques aigües, produisent chacune un portrait anormal et distinct d'acyls-CoA hépatiques. Ces profils ne sont pas prévisibles à partir des niveaux d'acides organiques urinaires et d'acylcarnitines plasmatiques. La cétogenèse est indétectable dans les hépatocytes HLLKO. Dans les mitochondries HLLKO isolées, le dégagement de 14CO2 à partir du [2-14C]pyruvate a diminué en présence de 2-ketoisocaproate (KIC), un métabolite de la leucine. Au test de tolérance au pyruvate, une mesure de la gluconéogenèse, les souris HLLKO ne présentent pas la réponse hyperglycémique normale. L'hyperammoniémie et l'hypoglycémie, des signes classiques de plusieurs erreurs innées du métabolisme (EIM) des acyls-CoA, surviennent de façon spontanée chez des souris HLLKO et sont inductibles par l'administration de KIC. Une charge en KIC augmente le niveau d'acyls-CoA reliés à la leucine et diminue le niveau d'acétyl-CoA. Les mitochondries des hépatocytes des souris HLLKO traitées avec KIC présentent un gonflement marqué. L'hyperammoniémie des souris HLLKO répond au traitement par l'acide N-carbamyl-L-glutamique. Ce composé permet de contourner une enzyme acétyl-CoA-dépendante essentielle pour l’uréogenèse, le N-acétylglutamate synthase. Ceci démontre un mécanisme d’hyperammoniémie lié aux acyls-CoA. Dans une deuxième EIM des acyls-CoA, la souris SCADD, déficiente en déshydrogénase des acyls-CoA à chaînes courtes. Le profil des acyls-CoA hépatiques montre un niveau élevé du butyryl-CoA particulièrement après un jeûne et après une charge en triglycérides à chaîne moyenne précurseurs du butyryl-CoA.

Effets motivationnels des cannabinoïdes dans un modèle animal de la schizophrénie

Depuis quelques décennies, la consommation de cannabis et son usage thérapeutique sont le sujet de nombreux débats. Le cannabis est la drogue illicite la plus consommée au monde et cette consommation se trouve dix fois plus élevée chez les patients atteints de schizophrénie que dans la population générale. L’hypothèse d’une automédication initialement proposée afin d’expliquer la consommation élevée de cannabis chez les patients atteints de schizophrénie est maintenant remise en question. En effet, les rapports indiquant une aggravation des symptômes plutôt qu’une amélioration suite à une consommation à long terme sont de plus en plus nombreux. Sachant que le cannabis peut induire des effets soit plaisants soit aversifs, la question se pose à savoir si une prédominance de la valence motivationnelle positive ou une diminution de la valence négative du cannabis peut expliquer la consommation élevée parmi les individus ayant un diagnostic de schizophrénie? Bien qu’un grand nombre de recherches pré-cliniques aient été menées chez l’animal normal pour évaluer l’effet motivationnel du Δ9-tétrahydrocannabinol (THC) et autres cannabinoïdes synthétiques, aucune n’a abordé cette problématique dans un modèle animal de la schizophrénie. Cette lacune nous a donc amené à étudier la valence motivationnelle du THC et de l’agoniste cannabinoïde WIN55,212-2 (WIN) dans un modèle animal de la schizophrénie: la lésion néonatale de l’hippocampe ventral (NVHL). Dans le premier article, nous présentons les résultats de quatre expériences. Une première avait pour objectif de déterminer si la procédure expérimentale que nous avons utilisée permettait de reproduire des signes distinctifs du modèle animal de la schizophrénie. Par la suite, nous avons évalué i) l’effet d’une dose de WIN sur l’activité locomotrice spontanée et ii) la valence motivationnelle du THC (0.5 mg/kg, i.p) et du WIN (1 mg/kg, i.p) chez les rats adolescents (jour post-natal 28-40, PD28-40) et adultes (PD56) au moyen du paradigme de préférence de place conditionnée (PPC). Tel qu’attendu, la réponse locomotrice à l’amphétamine (0.75 et 1.5 mg/kg) chez les rats NVHL adultes était supérieure à celle des rats contrôles (test distinctif du modèle). Le THC a induit une tendance aversive chez les rats contrôles adultes. Enfin, le WIN a stimulé l’activité locomotrice et induit une aversion significative chez les rats adultes NVHL. Dans un deuxième article, nous avons évalué la valence motivationnelle du THC (0.5 mg/kg), du WIN (1 et 3 mg/kg) et l’effet de l’amphétamine au moyen du paradigme d’autostimulation électrique intracérébrale (ASI). Les résultats montrent que : i) l’effet amplificateur de l’amphétamine sur l’ASI était de plus courte durée chez les rats NVHL; ii) le THC produit une légère atténuation de la récompense chez les rats contrôles tandis que le WIN a produit une atténuation plus prononcée de la récompense chez les rats NVHL, un effet qui a été bloqué par l’antagoniste aux récepteurs CB1, le AM251 (3 mg/kg). Pour la première fois les résultats suggèrent une altération du système endocannabinoïde dans un modèle animal de la schizophrénie. Ils indiquent qu’une exposition aigüe conduit à une prédominance de la valence négative. Bien qu’en apparente contradiction avec les études cliniques, ces résultats soulignent l’importance du contexte socio-environnemental pour expliquer les effets du cannabis chez les patients. De plus ils encouragent les futures études à évaluer cette valence sur un modèle d’exposition chronique.

Predicting the profile of nutrients available for absorption: from nutrient requirement to animal response and environmental impact

Current feed evaluation systems for dairy cattle aim to match nutrient requirements with nutrient intake at pre-defined production levels. These systems were not developed to address, and are not suitable to predict, the responses to dietary changes in terms of production level and product composition, excretion of nutrients to the environment, and nutrition related disorders. The change from a requirement to a response system to meet the needs of various stakeholders requires prediction of the profile of absorbed nutrients and its subsequent utilisation for various purposes. This contribution examines the challenges to predicting the profile of nutrients available for absorption in dairy cattle and provides guidelines for further improved prediction with regard to animal production responses and environmental pollution. The profile of nutrients available for absorption comprises volatile fatty acids, long-chain fatty acids, amino acids and glucose. Thus the importance of processes in the reticulo-rumen is obvious. Much research into rumen fermentation is aimed at determination of substrate degradation rates. Quantitative knowledge on rates of passage of nutrients out of the rumen is rather limited compared with that on degradation rates, and thus should be an important theme in future research. Current systems largely ignore microbial metabolic variation, and extant mechanistic models of rumen fermentation give only limited attention to explicit representation of microbial metabolic activity. Recent molecular techniques indicate that knowledge on the presence and activity of various microbial species is far from complete. Such techniques may give a wealth of information, but to include such findings in systems predicting the nutrient profile requires close collaboration between molecular scientists and mathematical modellers on interpreting and evaluating quantitative data. Protozoal metabolism is of particular interest here given the paucity of quantitative data. Empirical models lack the biological basis necessary to evaluate mitigation strategies to reduce excretion of waste, including nitrogen, phosphorus and methane. Such models may have little predictive value when comparing various feeding strategies. Examples include the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Tier II models to quantify methane emissions and current protein evaluation systems to evaluate low protein diets to reduce nitrogen losses to the environment. Nutrient based mechanistic models can address such issues. Since environmental issues generally attract more funding from governmental offices, further development of nutrient based models may well take place within an environmental framework.

Porcine models for the metabolic syndrome, digestive and bone disorders: a general overview

The aim of this review article is to provide an overview of the role of pigs as a biomedical model for humans. The usefulness and limitations of porcine models have been discussed in terms of metabolic, cardiovascular, digestive and bone diseases in humans. Domestic pigs and minipigs are the main categories of pigs used as biomedical models. One drawback of minipigs is that they are in short supply and expensive compared with domestic pigs, which in contrast cost more to house, feed and medicate. Different porcine breeds show different responses to the induction of specific diseases. For example, ossabaw minipigs provide a better model than Yucatan for the metabolic syndrome as they exhibit obesity, insulin resistance and hypertension, all of which are absent in the Yucatan. Similar metabolic/physiological differences exist between domestic breeds (e.g. Meishan v. Pietrain). The modern commercial (e.g. Large White) domestic pig has been the preferred model for developmental programming due to the 2- to 3-fold variation in body weight among littermates providing a natural form of foetal growth retardation not observed in ancient (e.g. Meishan) domestic breeds. Pigs have been increasingly used to study chronic ischaemia, therapeutic angiogenesis, hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and abdominal aortic aneurysm as their coronary anatomy and physiology are similar to humans. Type 1 and II diabetes can be induced in swine using dietary regimes and/or administration of streptozotocin. Pigs are a good and extensively used model for specific nutritional studies as their protein and lipid metabolism is comparable with humans, although pigs are not as sensitive to protein restriction as rodents. Neonatal and weanling pigs have been used to examine the pathophysiology and prevention/treatment of microbial-associated diseases and immune system disorders. A porcine model mimicking various degrees of prematurity in infants receiving total parenteral nutrition has been established to investigate gut development, amino acid metabolism and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Endoscopic therapeutic methods for upper gastrointestinal tract bleeding are being developed. Bone remodelling cycle in pigs is histologically more similar to humans than that of rats or mice, and is used to examine the relationship between menopause and osteoporosis. Work has also been conducted on dental implants in pigs to consider loading; however with caution as porcine bone remodels slightly faster than human bone. We conclude that pigs are a valuable translational model to bridge the gap between classical rodent models and humans in developing new therapies to aid human health.

Temporal lobe epilepsy and social behavior: An animal model

Social behavior depends on the integrity of social brain circuitry. The temporal lobe is an important part of the social brain, and manifests morphological and functional alterations in autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Rats with temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE), induced with pilocarpine, were subjected to a social discrimination test that has been used to investigate potential animal models of ASD, and the results were compared with those for the control group. Rats with TLE exhibited fewer social behaviors than controls. No differences were observed in nonsocial behavior between groups. The results suggest an important role for the temporal lobe in regulating social behaviors. This animal model might be used to explore some questions about ASD pathophysiology. (c) 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Animal models for genetic neuromuscular diseases

The neuromuscular disorders are a heterogeneous group of genetic diseases, caused by mutations in genes coding sarcolemmal, sarcomeric, and citosolic muscle proteins. Deficiencies or loss of function of these proteins leads to variable degree of progressive loss of motor ability. Several animal models, manifesting phenotypes observed in neuromuscular diseases, have been identified in nature or generated in laboratory. These models generally present physiological alterations observed in human patients and can be used as important tools for genetic, clinic, and histopathological studies. The mdx mouse is the most widely used animal model for Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD). Although it is a good genetic and biochemical model, presenting total deficiency of the protein dystrophin in the muscle, this mouse is not useful for clinical trials because of its very mild phenotype. The canine golden retriever MD model represents a more clinically similar model of DMD due to its larger size and significant muscle weakness. Autosomal recessive limb-girdle MD forms models include the SJL/J mice, which develop a spontaneous myopathy resulting from a mutation in the Dysferlin gene, being a model for LGMD2B. For the human sarcoglycanopahties (SG), the BIO14.6 hamster is the spontaneous animal model for delta-SG deficiency, whereas some canine models with deficiency of SG proteins have also been identified. More recently, using the homologous recombination technique in embryonic stem cell, several mouse models have been developed with null mutations in each one of the four SG genes. All sarcoglycan-null animals display a progressive muscular dystrophy of variable severity and share the property of a significant secondary reduction in the expression of the other members of the sarcoglycan subcomplex and other components of the Dystrophin-glycoprotein complex. Mouse models for congenital MD include the dy/dy (dystrophia-muscularis) mouse and the allelic mutant dy(2J)/dy(2J) mouse, both presenting significant reduction of alpha 2-laminin in the muscle and a severe phenotype. The myodystrophy mouse (Large(myd)) harbors a mutation in the glycosyltransferase Large, which leads to altered glycosylation of alpha-DG, and also a severe phenotype. Other informative models for muscle proteins include the knockout mouse for myostatin, which demonstrated that this protein is a negative regulator of muscle growth. Additionally, the stress syndrome in pigs, caused by mutations in the porcine RYR1 gene, helped to localize the gene causing malignant hypertermia and Central Core myopathy in humans. The study of animal models for genetic diseases, in spite of the existence of differences in some phenotypes, can provide important clues to the understanding of the pathogenesis of these disorders and are also very valuable for testing strategies for therapeutic approaches.

Corrective shoeing in horses: analysis of the adaptation period to the new condition imposed

O ferrageamento corretivo é um método comumente ma Dvideow. O nível de significância adotado foi de 5%. No utilizado para alterar o padrão do andamento dos animais, presente estudo, não houve diferença significativa entre os assim como na terapêutica de diversas afecções do siste-dias avaliados, a elevação em seis graus da pinça ou talões ma locomotor dos equinos. No entanto, não existem, até não gerou desconforto durante a passada, portanto, os ani o momento, estudos científicos que revelem o período de mais podem retornar às atividades regulares de exercício e adaptação do andamento dos animais a este tipo de in-treinamento imediatamente após o ferrageamento. tervenção.O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o período de adaptação à ferraduras com elevação em seis graus da pinça ou talões em equinos caminhando em esteira rolante. O período de adaptação à ferradura foi avaliado nos tempos 0, 48 e 96 horas após cada tipo de ferrageamento proposto. Os animais foram gravados caminhando em esteira rolante. O comprimento da passada e a análise qualitativa do andamento foram realizados com o auxílio do programa Dvideow. O nível de significância adotado foi de 5%. No presente estudo, não houve diferença significativa entre os dias avaliados, a elevação em seis graus da pinça ou talões não gerou desconforto durante a passada, portanto, os animais podem retornar às atividades regulares de exercício e treinamento imediatamente após o ferrageamento.