Identification of a new cell line permissive to porcine reproductive and resporatory syndrome virus replication

Le syndrome reproducteur et respiratoire porcin (SRRP) est une des maladies les plus dévastatrices économiquement pour l'industrie mondiale du porc. L'agent étiologique du SRRP est le virus du SRRP (VSRRP) lequel est connu pour avoir une spécificité d'hôte très restreinte et pour sa transmission par voie aerosol. Les antigènes et les ARN du VSRRP ont été trouvés dans des cellules épithéliales du tractus respiratoire de porcs infectés par le virus. L’interaction entre les macrophages alvéolaires porcins (PAMs) et le VSRRP a été démontrée comme jouant un rôle important dans l’infection causée par le virus. Malgré cela, l’interaction prenant place entre les cellules épithéliales du tractus respiratoire porcin et le virus ne devrait pas être négligée. Jusqu’à présent, la réplication du VSRRP in vitro dans des cellules épithéliales du tractus respiratoire porcin n’a pas été conduite avec succès et les tentatives pour le faire ont échoué. Une nouvelle lignée de cellules épithéliales de poumon de porc (SJPL) est maintenant disponible et sera utilisée dans cette étude afin de déterminer si elle est permissive à la réplication du VSRRP et si elle peut être un modèle approprié pour l’étude de la pathogénèse virale du VSRRP. L’expérimentation a démontré que cette nouvelle lignée cellulaire était permissive à l’infection et à la réplication du VSRRP. Afin de corroborer ces résultats, la cinétique de réplication du virus à été effectuée avec les cellules MARC-145 et SJPL. Aucune différence significative dans la production virale totale n’a été trouvée entre les deux lignées cellulaires. Les cellules SJPL ont permis la réplication de plusieurs souches Nord-Américaines du VSRRP, quoiqu’elles sont légèrement moins efficaces que les cellules MARC-145 pour l’isolement du virus. De plus, les cellules SJPL sont phénotypiquement différentes des cellules MARC-145. Plus précisément, les cellules SJPL sont plus sensibles à l’activation par le VSRRP des pro-caspases 3/7 et plusieurs inducteurs apoptotiques. Elles ont également montré de 8 à 16 fois plus de sensibilité à l’effet antiviral causé par l’IFN-α sur la réplication du virus contrairement aux cellules MARC-145. Ces résultats démontrent que les cellules SJPL pourraient représenter un substitut intéressant aux cellules MARC-145 pour la production d’antigènes pour un vaccin anti-VSRRP. Également, dû à leurs origines (poumon de l’hôte naturel), elles pourraient s’avérer être un modèle in vitro plus approprié pour l’étude de la pathogénèse du VSRRP.

Immunopathogenèse de la cryptococcose chez la souris transgénique exprimant le génome du VIH-1

La cryptococcose chez les patients atteints du VIH-1 est principalement causée par Cryptococcus neoformans var. grubii tandis que Cryptococcus gattii infecte surtout les personnes immunocompétentes. Afin d’élucider les mécanismes causant la susceptibilité différentielle à l’égard de ces deux espèces de Cryptococcus dans le contexte de l’infection au VIH-1, nous avons utilisé un modèle novateur de la cryptococcose chez la souris transgénique CD4C/HIVMutA, qui exprime les gènes nef, env et rev du VIH-1. L’expression du transgène VIH-1 a augmenté le recrutement pulmonaire des macrophages alvéolaires mais a diminué celui des lymphocytes T CD4+ et CD8+ en réponse à l’infection par le C. neoformans ou le C. gattii. La production pulmonaire des chimiokines MCP-1 (CCL2) et RANTES (CCL5) était également réduite chez les souris transgéniques infectées par l’une ou l’autre de ces espèces de Cryptococcus. La production pulmonaire de MIP-1α, MIP-1β, TNF-α, TGF-β, IL-2, IL-4 et IL-13 était augmentée chez la souris infectée au C. neoformans comparativement à C. gattii. In vitro, les macrophages alvéolaires prélevés chez la souris Tg et stimulés par des agonistes ont produit davantage de MIP-1β, alors que les chimiokines MCP-1 et RANTES n’ont pas été détectées.

Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae Possesses an Antiviral Activity against Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome Virus

Pigs are often colonized by more than one bacterial and/or viral species during respiratory tract infections. This phenomenon is known as the porcine respiratory disease complex (PRDC). Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae (App) and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) are pathogens that are frequently involved in PRDC. The main objective of this project was to study the in vitro interactions between these two pathogens and the host cells in the context of mixed infections. To fulfill this objective, PRRSV permissive cell lines such as MARC-145, SJPL, and porcine alveolar macrophages (PAM) were used. A pre-infection with PRRSV was performed at 0.5 multiplicity of infection (MOI) followed by an infection with App at 10 MOI. Bacterial adherence and cell death were compared. Results showed that PRRSV preinfection did not affect bacterial adherence to the cells. PRRSV and App co-infection produced an additive cytotoxicity effect. Interestingly, a pre-infection of SJPL and PAM cells with App blocked completely PRRSV infection. Incubation of SJPL and PAM cells with an App cell-free culture supernatant is also sufficient to significantly block PRRSV infection. This antiviral activity is not due to LPS but rather by small molecular weight, heat-resistant App metabolites (,1 kDa). The antiviral activity was also observed in SJPL cells infected with swine influenza virus but to a much lower extent compared to PRRSV. More importantly, the PRRSV antiviral activity of App was also seen with PAM, the cells targeted by the virus in vivo during infection in pigs. The antiviral activity might be due, at least in part, to the production of interferon c. The use of in vitro experimental models to study viral and bacterial co-infections will lead to a better understanding of the interactions between pathogens and their host cells, and could allow the development of novel prophylactic and therapeutic tools.

Identification of a new cell line permissive to porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus infection and replication which is phenotypically distinct from MARC-145 cell line

Background Airborne transmitted pathogens, such as porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), need to interact with host cells of the respiratory tract in order to be able to enter and disseminate in the host organism. Pulmonary alveolar macrophages (PAM) and MA104 derived monkey kidney MARC-145 cells are known to be permissive to PRRSV infection and replication and are the most studied cells in the literature. More recently, new cell lines developed to study PRRSV have been genetically modified to make them permissive to the virus. The SJPL cell line origin was initially reported to be epithelial cells of the respiratory tract of swine. Thus, the goal of this study was to determine if SJPL cells could support PRRSV infection and replication in vitro. Results The SJPL cell growth was significantly slower than MARC-145 cell growth. The SJPL cells were found to express the CD151 protein but not the CD163 and neither the sialoadhesin PRRSV receptors. During the course of the present study, the SJPL cells have been reported to be of monkey origin. Nevertheless, SJPL cells were found to be permissive to PRRSV infection and replication even if the development of the cytopathic effect was delayed compared to PRRSV-infected MARC-145 cells. Following PRRSV replication, the amount of infectious viral particles produced in SJPL and MARC-145 infected cells was similar. The SJPL cells allowed the replication of several PRRSV North American strains and were almost efficient as MARC-145 cells for virus isolation. Interestingly, PRRSV is 8 to 16 times more sensitive to IFNα antiviral effect in SJPL cell in comparison to that in MARC-145 cells. PRRSV induced an increase in IFNβ mRNA and no up regulation of IFNα mRNA in both infected cell types. In addition, PRRSV induced an up regulation of IFNγ and TNF-α mRNAs only in infected MARC-145 cells. Conclusions In conclusion, the SJPL cells are permissive to PRRSV. In addition, they are phenotypically different from MARC-145 cells and are an additional tool that could be used to study PRRSV pathogenesis mechanisms in vitro.

Toll-Like Receptor 4 Signaling Leads to Severe Fungal Infection Associated with Enhanced Proinflammatory Immunity and Impaired Expansion of Regulatory T Cells

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) present in innate immune cells recognize pathogen molecular patterns and influence immunity to control the host-parasite interaction. The objective of this study was to characterize the involvement of TLR4 in the innate and adaptive immunity to Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, the most important primary fungal pathogen of Latin America. We compared the responses of C3H/HeJ mice, which are naturally defective in TLR4 signaling, with those of C3H/HePas mice, which express functional receptors, after in vitro and in vivo infection with P. brasiliensis. Unexpectedly, we verified that TLR4-defective macrophages infected in vitro with P. brasiliensis presented decreased fungal loads associated with impaired synthesis of nitric oxide, interleukin-12 (IL-12), and macrophage chemotactic protein 1 (MCP-1). After intratracheal infection with 1 million yeasts, TLR4-defective mice developed reduced fungal burdens and decreased levels of pulmonary nitric oxide, proinflammatory cytokines, and antibodies. TLR4-competent mice produced elevated levels of IL-12 and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha), besides cytokines of the Th17 pattern, indicating a proinflammatory role for TLR4 signaling. The more severe infection of TLR4-normal mice resulted in increased influx of activated macrophages and T cells to the lungs and progressive control of fungal burdens but impaired expansion of regulatory T cells (Treg cells). In contrast, TLR4-defective mice were not able to clear their diminished fungal burdens totally, a defect associated with deficient activation of T-cell immunity and enhanced development of Treg cells. These divergent patterns of immunity, however, resulted in equivalent mortality rates, indicating that control of elevated fungal growth mediated by vigorous inflammatory reactions is as deleterious to the hosts as low fungal loads inefficiently controlled by limited inflammatory reactions.

Early Phase of Allergic Airway Inflammation in Diabetic Rats: Role of Insulin on the Signaling Pathways and Mediators

Background: Allergic lung inflammation is impaired in diabetic rats and is restored by insulin treatment. In the present study we investigated the effect of insulin on the signaling pathways triggered by allergic inflammation in the lung and the release of selected mediators. Methods: Diabetic male Wistar rats (alloxan, 42 mg/kg, i.v., 10 days) and matching controls were sensitized by s.c. injections of ovalbumin (OA) in aluminium hydroxide, 14 days before OA (1 mg/0.4 ml) or saline intratracheal challenge. A group of diabetic rats were treated with neutral protamine Hagedorn insulin (NPH, 4 IU, s.c.), 2 h before the OA challenge. Six hours after the challenge, bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) was performed for mediator release and lung tissue was homogenized for Western blotting analysis of signaling pathways. Results: Relative to non-diabetic rats, the diabetic rats exhibited a significant reduction in OA-induced phosphorylation of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK, 59%), p38 (53%), protein kinase B (Akt, 46%), protein kinase C (PKC)-alpha (63%) and PKC-delta (38%) in lung homogenates following the antigen challenge. Activation of the NF-kappa B p65 subunit and phosphorylation of I kappa B alpha were almost suppressed in diabetic rats. Reduced expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS, 32%) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2, 46%) in the lung homogenates was also observed. The BAL concentration of prostaglandin (PG)-E(2), nitric oxide (NO) and interleukin (IL)-6 was reduced in diabetic rats (74%, 44% and 65%, respectively), whereas the cytokine-induced neutrophil chemoattractant (CINC)-2 concentration was not different from the control animals. Treatment of diabetic rats with insulin completely or partially restored all of these parameters. This protocol of insulin treatment only partially reduced the blood glucose levels. Conclusion: The data presented show that insulin regulates MAPK, PI3K, PKC and NF-kappa B pathways, the expression of the inducible enzymes iNOS and COX-2, and the levels of NO, PGE(2) and IL-6 in the early phase of allergic lung inflammation in diabetic rats. It is suggested that insulin is required for optimal transduction of the intracellular signals that follow allergic stimulation. Copyright (C) 2010 S. Karger AG, Basel

TLR2 Is a Negative Regulator of Th17 Cells and Tissue Pathology in a Pulmonary Model of Fungal Infection

To study the role of TLR2 in a experimental model of chronic pulmonary infection, TLR2-deficient and wild-type mice were intratracheally infected with Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, a primary fungal pathogen. Compared with control, TLR2(-/-) mice developed a less severe pulmonary infection and decreased NO synthesis. Equivalent results were detected with in vitro-infected macrophages. Unexpectedly, despite the differences in fungal loads both mouse strains showed equivalent survival times and severe pulmonary inflammatory reactions. Studies on lung-infiltrating leukocytes of TLR2(-/-) mice demonstrated an increased presence of polymorphonuclear neutrophils that control fungal loads but were associated with diminished numbers of activated CD4(+) and CD8(+) T lymphocytes. TLR2 deficiency leads to minor differences in the levels of pulmonary type 1 and type 2 cytokines, but results in increased production of KC, a CXC chemokine involved in neutrophils chemotaxis, as well as TGF-beta, IL-6, IL-23, and IL-17 skewing T cell immunity to a Th17 pattern. In addition, the preferential Th17 immunity of TLR2(-/-) mice was associated with impaired expansion of regulatory CD4(+)CD25(+)FoxP3(+) T cells. This is the first study to show that TLR2 activation controls innate and adaptive immunity to P. brasiliensis infection. TLR2 deficiency results in increased Th17 immunity associated with diminished expansion of regulatory T cells and increased lung pathology due to unrestrained inflammatory reactions. The Journal of Immunology, 2009, 183: 1279-1290.

Bradykinin inducible receptor is essential to lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury in mice

Lipopolysaccharides from gram-negative bacteria are amongst the most common causative agents of acute lung injury, which is characterized by an inflammatory response, with cellular infiltration and the release of mediators/cytokines. There is evidence that bradykinin plays a role in lung inflammation in asthma but in other types of lung inflammation its role is less clear. In the present study we evaluated the role of the bradykinin B(1) receptor in acute lung injury caused by lipopolysaccharide inhalation and the mechanisms behind bradykinin actions participating in the inflammatory response. We found that in C57BI/6 mice, the bradykinin B(1) receptor expression was up-regulated 24 h after lipopolysaccharide inhalation. At this time, the number of cells and protein concentration were significantly increased in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and the mice developed airway hyperreactivity to methacholine. In addition, there was an increased expression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-1 beta and interferon-gamma and chemokines (monocytes chemotactic protein-1 and KC) in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and in the lung tissue. We then treated the mice with a bradykinin B, receptor antagonist, R-954 (Ac-Orn-[Oic(2), alpha-MePhe(5), D-beta Nal(7), Ile(8)]desArg(9)-bradykinin), 30 min after lipopolysaccharide administration. We observed that this treatment prevented the airway hyperreactivity as well as the increased cellular infiltration and protein content in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Moreover, R-954 inhibited the expression of cytokines/chemokines. These results implicate bradykinin, acting through B(1) receptor, in the development of acute lung injury caused by lipopolysaccharide inhalation. (C) 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

SIGNALING PATHWAYS AND MEDIATORS IN LPS-INDUCED LUNG INFLAMMATION IN DIABETIC RATS: ROLE OF INSULIN

Diabetic patients are more susceptible to infections, and their inflammatory response is impaired. This is restored by insulin treatment. In the present study, we investigated the effect of insulin on LPS-induced signaling pathways and mediators in the lung of diabetic rats. Diabetic male Wistar rats (alloxan, 42 mg/kg i.v., 10 days) and control rats received intratracheal instillation of LPS (750 mu g/0.4 mL) or saline. Some diabetic rats were given neutral protamine Hagedorn insulin (4 IU s.c.) 2 h before LPS. After 6 h, bronchoalveolar lavage was performed for the release of mediators, and lung tissue was homogenized for analysis of LPS-induced signaling pathways. Relative to control rats, diabetic rats exhibited a significant reduction in the LPS-induced phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (64%), p38 (70%), protein kinase B (67%), and protein kinase C alpha (57%) and delta (65%) and in the expression of iNOS (32%) and cyclooxygenase 2 (67%) in the lung homogenates. The bronchoalveolar lavage fluid concentrations of NO (47%) and IL-6 (49%) were also reduced in diabetic rats, whereas the cytokine-induced neutrophil chemoattractant 2 (CINC-2) levels were increased 23%, and CINC-1 was not different from control animals. Treatment of diabetic rats with insulin completely or partially restored all these parameters. In conclusion, data presented show that insulin regulates mitogen-activated protein kinase, phosphatidylinositol 3`-kinase, protein kinase C pathways, expression of the inducible enzymes, cyclooxygenase 2 and iNOS, and levels of IL-6 and CINC-2 in LPS-induced lung inflammation in diabetic rats. These results suggest that the protective effect of insulin in sepsis could be due to modulation of cellular signal transduction factors.

Adhesion of Histoplasma capsulatum to pneumocytes and biofilm formation on an abiotic surface

The pathogenic fungus, Histoplasma capsulatum, causes the respiratory and systemic disease 'histoplasmosis'. This disease is primarily acquired via inhalation of aerosolized microconidia or hyphal fragments of H. capsulatum. Evolution of this respiratory disease depends on the ability of H. capsulatum yeasts to survive and replicate within alveolar macrophages. It is known that adhesion to host cells is the first step in colonization and biofilm formation. Some microorganisms become attached to biological and non-biological surfaces due to the formation of biofilms. Based on the importance of biofilms and their persistence on host tissues and cell surfaces, the present study was designed to investigate biofilm formation by H. capsulatum yeasts, as well as their ability to adhere to pneumocyte cells. H. capsulatum biofilm assays were performed in vitro using two different clinical strains of the fungus and biofilms were characterized using scanning electron microscopy. The biofilms were measured using a 2,3-bis(2-methoxy-4-nitro-5-sulfophenyl)-5-[(phenylamino)carbonyl]-2H-tetrazolium-hydroxide (XTT) reduction assay. The results showed that both the H. capsulatum strains tested were very efficient at adhering to host cells and forming biofilm. Therefore, this is a possible survival strategy adopted by this fungus.

PTEN Directly Activates the Actin Depolymerization Factor Cofilin-1 During PGE(2)-Mediated Inhibition of Phagocytosis of Fungi

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Systemic response induced by Scorpaena plumieri fish venom initiates acute lung injury in mice

Scorpaena plumieri venomous fish inflicted severe injuries in humans characterized by systemic effects and cardiovascular abnormalities. Although cardiotoxic and hypotensive effects induced in rats by this venom have been studied, little is known about their effect on bronchial epithelial permeability and airway inflammation in mice. The primary goal of this study was to determine whether the intraplantar or intraperitoneal injection of S. plumieri venom results in systemic response, and whether this event initiates acute lung injure. We found that BALB/c mice developed neutrophilic infiltrates, areas of lung hemorrhage and alveolar macrophage activation within 24 h after injection with S. plumieri venom. These histopathological changes were associated with an early increase in BAL fluid protein and early induction of cytokines, chemokines and matrix metaloproteinases, followed by a later increase in BAL fluid neutrophils. These findings provide clear evidence that the injection of S. plumieri venom in footpad or peritoneal cavity of mice results in venom deposition in the airway and initiates a sustained inflammatory response in the lungs. (C) 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Endogenous annexin A1 counter-regulates bleomycin-induced lung fibrosis

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Critical protective role for annexin 1 gene expression in the endotoxemic murine microcirculation

The inflammatory response is a protective process of the body to counteract xenobiotic penetration and injury, although in disease this response can become deregulated. There are endogenous biochemical pathways that operate in the host to keep inflammation under control. Here we demonstrate that the counter-regulator annexin 1 (AnxA1) is critical for controlling experimental endotoxemia. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) markedly activated the AnxA1 gene in epithelial cells, neutrophils, and peritoneal, mesenteric, and alveolar macrophages-cell types known to function in experimental endotoxemia. Administration of LPS to AnxA1-deficient mice produced a toxic response characterized by organ injury and lethality within 48 hours, a phenotype rescued by exogenous application of low doses of the protein. In the absence of AnxA1, LPS generated a deregulated cellular and cytokine response with a marked degree of leukocyte adhesion in the microcirculation. Analysis of LPS receptor expression in AnxA1-null macrophages indicated an aberrant expression of Toll-like receptor 4. In conclusion, this study has detailed cellular and biochemical alterations associated with AnxA1 gene deletion and highlighted the impact of this protective circuit for the correct functioning of the homeostatic response to sublethal doses of LPS. Copyright © American Society for Investigative Pathology.

Expressão gênica das adesinas e fatores de virulência da fase miceliar e leveduriforme do complexo paracoccidioides e de sua interação com células epiteliais e fagócitos

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)