Associationism and electoral participation: A multilevel study of 2000 Spanish general election

This work presents an application of the multilevel analysis techniques tothe study of the abstention in the 2000 Spanish general election. Theinterest of the study is both, substantive and methodological. From thesubstantive point of view the article intends to explain the causes ofabstention and analyze the impact of associationism on it. From themethodological point of view it is intended to analyze the interaction betweenindividual and context with a modelisation that takes into account thehierarchical structure of data. The multilevel study of this paper validatesthe one level results obtained in previous analysis of the abstention andshows that only a fraction of the differences in abstention are explained bythe individual characteristics of the electors. Another important fraction ofthese differences is due to the political and social characteristics of thecontext. Relating to associationism, the data suggest that individualparticipation in associations decrease the probability of abstention. However,better indicators are needed in order to catch more properly the effect ofassociationism in electoral behaviour.

La prévention est un sport de combat. [Prevention is a combat sport].

Fred Paccaud, professeur d'épidémiologie et de santé publique (Lausanne), réagit à la campagne de dénigrement menée en avril 2008 contre le directeur de l'Office fédéral de la santé publique et les campagnes de prévention.

Targeting fertility and female participation through the income tax

We evaluate the effect of a 2003 reform in the Spanish income tax on fertility and the employment of mothers with small children. The reform introduced a tax credit for working mothers with children under the age of three, while also increasing child deductions for all households with children. Theoretically, given the interplay of these two components, the expected effect of the reform is ambiguous on both outcomes. We find that the combined reforms significantly increased both fertility (by almost five percent) and the employment rate of mothers with children under three (by two percent). These effects were more pronounced among less-educated women. In addition, to disentangle the impact of the two reform components, we use an earlier reform that increased child deductions in 1999. We find that the child deductions affect mothers employment negatively, which implies that the 2003 tax credit would have increased employment even more (up to five percent) in the absence of the change in child deductions.

Motivation, test scores and economic success

This paper argues that low-stakes test scores, available in surveys, may be partially determinedby test-taking motivation, which is associated with personality traits but not with cognitiveability. Therefore, such test score distributions may not be informative regarding cognitiveability distributions. Moreover, correlations, found in survey data, between high test scoresand economic success may be partially caused by favorable personality traits. To demonstratethese points, I use the coding speed test that was administered without incentives to NationalLongitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 (NLSY) participants. I suggest that due to its simplicityits scores may especially depend on individuals' test-taking motivation. I show that controllingfor conventional measures of cognitive skills, the coding speed scores are correlated with futureearnings of male NLSY participants. Moreover, the coding speed scores of highly motivated,though less educated, population (potential enlists to the armed forces) are higher than NLSYparticipants' scores. I then use controlled experiments to show that when no performance-basedincentives are provided, participants' characteristics, but not their cognitive skills, affect effortinvested in the coding speed test. Thus, participants with the same ability (measured by theirscores on an incentivized test) have significantly different scores on tests without performance-based incentives.

Controlo interno na prevenção de erros e fraudes

Atualmente, as situações de erros e fraudes, têm ocorrido com muita frequência a nível mundial. Por exemplo em Cabo Verde estas têm vindo a ganhar espaço nos mídias, onde a todo momento aparece casos de erros e fraudes, como por exemplo, os casos da Sociedade Cabo-verdiana de Tabacos, Banco Comercial do Atlântico, Caixa Económica, Câmara Municipal da Ribeira Brava, Associação Sport Club Moreirense, Sociedade de Segurança Industrial, Marítima e Comercial, Ministério das Finanças entre outros. Essas situações desfavoráveis para qualquer empresa, são derivadas de uma gestão menos cuidada dos recursos, e dos valores e princípios éticos cultivados pelas pessoas. O triângulo de fraude criada por Donald Cressey demonstra os motivos que leva um individuo a cometer atos fraudulentos, como sendo a motivação, a pressão e a oportunidade. Neste sentido, o controlo interno surge como uma ferramenta muito importante e fundamental para mitigar os riscos advenientes da ocorrência de erros e fraudes, suscetíveis de acontecer nas empresas. O controlo interno traduz num conjunto de medidas que protegem o património da empresa e garantem o cumprimento dos seus objetivos entretanto, como qualquer outra ferramenta de gestão está possui determinadas limitações que podem ser ultrapassadas com a utilização de alguns procedimentos básicos e, ou alternativos de controlo interno. É imprescindível que um sistema de controlo interno, para além de implementado, adequado e em funcionamento, seja mantido e acompanhado. O estudo dos casos da SILMAC, SA e da SCT, SA, mostram a importância que o controlo interno tem na prevenção e deteção de erros e fraudes, pois denota-se que as fraudes cometidas aconteceram na sequência de fraquezas de controlo interno e no excesso de confiança depositada nos colaboradores. Currently, the situations of errors and fraud have occurred very often in the world. Cape Verde in these situations have gained ground in the media, where every moment appears to errors and fraud cases, such as cases of “Sociedade cabo-verdiana de tabacos, Banco Comercial do Atlântico, Caixa Económica, Câmara Municipal da Ribeira Brava, Associação Sport Club Moreirense, Sociedade de segurança industrial, marítima e comercial, Ministério de finanças” amongst others. These situations which unfavorable for any company, are derived from a less carefully management of resources and ethical principles and values cultivated by people. The fraud triangle created by Donald Cressey, demonstrates reasons that lead an individual to commit fraudulent acts, such as motivation, opportunity and pressure. In this sense, internal control emerges as a very important tool to mitigate the risks arising from situations of errors and fraud, which are likely to happen in companies. The internal control translates into a set of measures that protect the assets of the business and ensure the fulfillment of its objectives however, like any other management tool is has limitations, however these can be overcome with the use of basic procedures, or alternative internal control. It is essential that an internal control system, in addition to implemented, adequate and functioning is maintained and monitored. The case studies of SILMAC and SCT, show the importance of internal control is the prevention and detection of errors and fraud. For note that the fraud occurred following oversights in its internal control and confidence in their employees.

Position statement--altitude training for improving team-sport players' performance: current knowledge and unresolved issues.

Despite the limited research on the effects of altitude (or hypoxic) training interventions on team-sport performance, players from all around the world engaged in these sports are now using altitude training more than ever before. In March 2013, an Altitude Training and Team Sports conference was held in Doha, Qatar, to establish a forum of research and practical insights into this rapidly growing field. A round-table meeting in which the panellists engaged in focused discussions concluded this conference. This has resulted in the present position statement, designed to highlight some key issues raised during the debates and to integrate the ideas into a shared conceptual framework. The present signposting document has been developed for use by support teams (coaches, performance scientists, physicians, strength and conditioning staff) and other professionals who have an interest in the practical application of altitude training for team sports. After more than four decades of research, there is still no consensus on the optimal strategies to elicit the best results from altitude training in a team-sport population. However, there are some recommended strategies discussed in this position statement to adopt for improving the acclimatisation process when training/competing at altitude and for potentially enhancing sea-level performance. It is our hope that this information will be intriguing, balanced and, more importantly, stimulating to the point that it promotes constructive discussion and serves as a guide for future research aimed at advancing the bourgeoning body of knowledge in the area of altitude training for team sports.

Prévention de la violence commise par les spectateurs lors de manifestations sportives : étude des mesures préventives et de la responsabilité de l'organisateur à la lumière du droit comparé, du droit suisse et du droit associatif

Introduction 1. Généralités : Le sport occupe une place importante dans notre société, de manière active par la pratique d'une ou de plusieurs activités sportives, ou de manière passive, au travers de la presse, de la radio et de la télévision. Le sport est ainsi un acte de participation, d'appartenance, de revendication et d'intégration à la société en général ou à un groupe. Il stimule l'imagination et permet de rêver aux héros sportifs. Enfin, non seulement il améliore la santé de ceux qui le pratique, mais il a une dimension éducative et joue un rôle social, culturel et récréatif. Toutefois, le sport est également un spectacle qui provoque des passions et engendre des émotions de la part des supporters, dont certains s'exaltent pour leur équipe fétiche. Il arrive que ce supportérisme soit à tel point exacerbé qu'il mène à des dérives pouvant aboutir à des actes de violence dans et en dehors des stades, ceci tant avant, pendant qu'après le match. A titre d'exemple tragique, les téléspectateurs garderont longtemps en mémoire les scènes auxquelles ils ont assisté le 29 mai 1985, en direct, lorsque, avant le début de la rencontre, des hooligans anglais ont attaqué des supporters italiens dans les gradins du bloc Z du stade du Heysel à Bruxelles, lors de la finale de la Coupe d'Europe des champions, opposant le FC Liverpool à la Juventus de Turin; 39 personnes en sont mortes et 600 ont été blessées. La Suisse, longtemps épargnée par le phénomène, en regard de la situation qui a prévalu dans d'autres Etats européens, ne peut échapper, depuis quelques années, au triste constat selon lequel les stades constituent désormais des environnements propices à des actions de violence, de racisme et, plus rarement, d'extrémisme. Le cas le plus révélateur a eu lieu le 13 mai 2006, lorsque des fauteurs de trouble ont envahi le terrain du Parc Saint-Jacques de Bâle après le coup de sifflet final du match de championnat opposant le FC Bâle au FC Zurich, match dont l'enjeu était la première place du classement du championnat de Super League, pour attaquer à coups de pied et à coups de poing des joueurs, des accompagnants et des personnes chargées de la sécurité. Les affrontements ont continué dans la rue jusque tard dans la soirée. Il s'en est suivi une centaine de blessés et des dégâts d'un demi million de francs. De tels débordements mettent en danger la sécurité du public, des équipes et des arbitres. Il s'agit de tout mettre en oeuvre afin que les spectateurs qui assistent à une manifestation sportive puissent prendre du plaisir aux performances des sportifs sans devoir craindre pour leur sécurité. De même, les acteurs sur le terrain doivent pouvoir exercer leur sport sans craindre un envahissement de l'aire de jeu. Ainsi, les Etats et les associations sportives ont élaboré des textes juridiques afin d'éviter des débordements ou tout autre événement qui pourraient mettre en danger des personnes ou des biens matériels lors de manifestations sportives. Sous l'angle du droit étatique helvétique, cela s'est traduit, notamment en vue du déroulement en Suisse du Championnat d'Europe de football de l'UEFA en 2008 (EURO 2008) et du Championnat du monde de hockey sur glace en 2009, par l'adoption de mesures préventives permettant de lutter contre les actes de violence lors de manifestations sportives, introduites dans la Loi fédérale du 21 mars 1997 instituant des mesures visant au maintien de la sûreté intérieure (LMSI). Elles se concrétisent par l'inscription d'individus ayant commis des actes de violence dans une banque de données nationale, ainsi que par le recours au périmètre d'exclusion, à l'interdiction de sortie du territoire, à l'obligation de s'annoncer à la police et, en dernier ressort, à la garde à vue; enfin, il est également possible de saisir, séquestrer ou confisquer du matériel de propagande5. La mise en place de telles mesures relève de l'Etat, garant de la sécurité et de l'ordre publics à l'extérieur des enceintes sportives. L'organisateur, chargé quant à lui d'assurer la sécurité à l'intérieur du stade, n'est toutefois pas en marge, puisque les fédérations et associations sportives ont édicté des règlements dont il est le destinataire. Ces textes prévoient, à sa charge, notamment les mesures suivantes: le prononcé d'interdictions de stade à l'encontre de supporters violents, la fouille accrue des spectateurs, l'engagement d'un service de sécurité privé, l'obligation de désigner un responsable de la sécurité, la séparation des différents groupes de supporters, etc.. Il appartient ainsi aux associations sportives, aux organisateurs, aux chargés de la sécurité au sein des clubs et aux forces de l'ordre public d'appliquer de la meilleure façon que ce soit les mesures proposées et de collaborer afin de combattre les débordements des spectateurs de manière effective. Prévenir et supprimer la violence dans les manifestations sportives exige ainsi la mobilisation et la collaboration de tous les protagonistes concernés.

Active civic participation of immigrants in Portugal

Portugal’s historical past strongly influences the composition of the country’s immigrant population. The main third-country foreign nationals in Portugal originate traditionally from Portuguese-speaking African countries (namely Cape Verde, Angola, Guinea Bissau, and S. Tomé e Príncipe) and Brazil. In 2001, a newly created immigrant status entitled “permanence” authorization uncovered a quantitative and a qualitative change in the structure of immigrant population in Portugal. First, there was a quantitative jump from 223.602 foreigners in 2001 to 364.203 regularized foreigners in 2003. Secondly, there was a substantial qualitative shift in the composition of immigrants. The majority of the new immigrants began coming from Eastern European countries, such as Ukraine, Moldavia, Romania, and the Russian Federation. Thus, European countries outside the E.U. zone now rank second (after African countries) in their contribution of individuals to the stocks of immigrant population in Portugal. The differences between the new and traditional immigration flows are visible in the geographical distribution of immigrants and in their insertion into the labour market. While the traditional flows would congregate around the metropolitan area of Lisbon and in the Algarve, the new migratory flows tend to be more geographically dispersed and present in less urbanized areas of Portugal. In terms of insertion in the labour market, although the construction sector is still the most important industry for immigrant labour, Eastern European workers may also be found in the agriculture and manufacturing sectors. The institutional conditions that encourage immigrants’ civic participation are divided at three different levels: the state, the local, and the civil society levels. At the state level, the High Commissioner for Migrations and Ethnic Minorities is the main organizational structure along with a set of interrelated initiatives operating under specific regulatory frameworks, which act as mediators between state officials and the Portuguese civil society, and more specifically, immigrant communities. At the local level, some municipalities created consultative councils and municipal departments aiming at encouraging the participation and representation of interests from immigrant groups and association in local policies. In the civil society sphere, the main actors in Portugal spurring immigrants civic participation are immigrant associations, mainstream associations directed toward immigration topics, and unions. The legal conditions framing immigrants’ access to social housing, education, health, and social security in Portugal are also considered to be positive. Conditions restricting immigrants’ civic participation are mainly normative and include the Portuguese nationality law, the regulations shaping the political participation of immigrants, namely in what concerns their right to vote, and employment regulations restricting immigrants’ access to public administration positions. Part II of the report focuses on the active civic participation of third country immigrants. First, reasons for the lack of research on this issue in Portugal are explained. On the one hand, the recent immigration history and the more urgent needs regarding school and economic integration kept this issue out of the research spotlight. On the other hand, it was just in the beginning of the 1990s that immigrants took the very first steps toward collective mobilisation. Secondly, the literature review of Portuguese bibliography covers research on third country immigrants’ associative movement, research on local authorities’ policies and discussion about ethnic politics and political mobilisation of immigrants in Portugal. As political mobilisation of these groups has been made mainly through ethnic and/or migrant organisations, a brief history of immigrants' associative movement is given. Immigrant associations develop multiple roles, covering the social, the cultural, the economic and the political domains. Political claiming for the regularisation of illegal immigrants has been a permanent and important field of intervention since the mid-1990s. Research results reveal the com5 plex relations between ethnic mobilisation and the set of legal and institutional frameworks developed by local and national governmental authorities targeted to the incorporation of minority groups. Case studies on the Oeiras district and on the Amadora district are then presented. Conclusions underline that the most active immigrant groups are those from Cape Verde and Guinea Bissau, since these groups have constituted a higher number of ethnic associations, give priority to political claiming and present a more politicised discourse. Reflecting on the future of research on civic participation of third country immigrants in Portugal, the authors state that it would be interesting and relevant to compare the Portuguese situation with those of other European countries, with an older immigration history, and analyse how the Portuguese immigrants’ associative movement will be affected by a changing legal framework and the emergence of new opportunities within the set of structures regarding the political participation of minority groups.

The rise and decline of children's labour participation levels during the early stages of industrialisation. Catalonia (1850-1925)

This article aims to analyse the reasons for the intensive use of childlabour in the 19th century and its subsequent decline in the first thirdof the 20th century in the context of an economy with a highly flexiblelabour supply like that of Catalonia. During the second half of the 19thcentury,factors relating to family economies, such as numerous familiesand low wages for adults, along with the technologies of the time thatrequired manual labour resources, would appear to explain the intensiveuse of child labour to the detriment of schooling. The technologicalchanges that occurred during the first third of the 20th century, thedemographic transition and adult wage increase (for both men and women)explain the schooling of children up to the age of 15 and theconsequent practical abolition of child labour in that new era ofeconomic modernisation.