Analysis of urban parameters in the characterization of seismic vulnerability: application to the city of Lorca.

Estimación de la intensidad tras el terremoto de Lorca.

Comparison of the seismic behaviour between three building tests, all based on a two storey model house

Integral Masonry System consisting of intersecting steel trusses alo ng each of the three dimensional directions of space on walls and slabs using any masonry material, had yet been backed up by the previous adobe test for seismic areas. This paper presents the comparison this last test and the adaptation of the IMS using h ollow brick. A prototype based on a two storey model house (6mx6mx6m) has being also built in two different scales in order to maximize the load and size of the shake table: the first one half size the whole building (3mx3mx3m) and the second, a quarter of the real size (3mx3mx6m). Both tests have suffered some mild to moderate damages while supporting the higher seismic action subjected by the shake table, without even fissuring the first test and with very few damages the second one. The thickness of the hollow brick wall and the diameter of the tree - dimensional truss reinforcement were scaled to the real size test in order to ascertain its great structural behaviour in relation to the previous structural model calculations. The aim of this study is to sum marize the results of the research collaboration between the ETSAM - UPM and the PUCP in whose laboratory these tests were carried out.

Nonlinear seismic behaviour of concrete arch bridges

Arch bridge structural solution has been known for centuries, in fact the simple nature of arch that require low tension and shear strength was an advantage as the simple materials like stone and brick were the only option back in ancient centuries. By the pass of time especially after industrial revolution, the new materials were adopted in construction of arch bridges to reach longer spans. Nowadays one long span arch bridge is made of steel, concrete or combination of these two as "CFST", as the result of using these high strength materials, very long spans can be achieved. The current record for longest arch belongs to Chaotianmen bridge over Yangtze river in China with 552 meters span made of steel and the longest reinforced concrete type is Wanxian bridge which also cross the Yangtze river through a 420 meters span. Today the designer is no longer limited by span length as long as arch bridge is the most applicable solution among other approaches, i.e. cable stayed and suspended bridges are more reasonable if very long span is desired. Like any super structure, the economical and architectural aspects in construction of a bridge is extremely important, in other words, as a narrower bridge has better appearance, it also require smaller volume of material which make the design more economical. Design of such bridge, beside the high strength materials, requires precise structural analysis approaches capable of integrating the combination of material behaviour and complex geometry of structure and various types of loads which may be applied to bridge during its service life. Depend on the design strategy, analysis may only evaluates the linear elastic behaviour of structure or consider the nonlinear properties as well. Although most of structures in the past were designed to act in their elastic range, the rapid increase in computational capacity allow us to consider different sources of nonlinearities in order to achieve a more realistic evaluations where the dynamic behaviour of bridge is important especially in seismic zones where large movements may occur or structure experience P - _ effect during the earthquake. The above mentioned type of analysis is computationally expensive and very time consuming. In recent years, several methods were proposed in order to resolve this problem. Discussion of recent developments on these methods and their application on long span concrete arch bridges is the main goal of this research. Accordingly available long span concrete arch bridges have been studied to gather the critical information about their geometrical aspects and properties of their materials. Based on concluded information, several concrete arch bridges were designed for further studies. The main span of these bridges range from 100 to 400 meters. The Structural analysis methods implemented in in this study are as following: Elastic Analysis: Direct Response History Analysis (DRHA): This method solves the direct equation of motion over time history of applied acceleration or imposed load in linear elastic range. Modal Response History Analysis (MRHA): Similar to DRHA, this method is also based on time history, but the equation of motion is simplified to single degree of freedom system and calculates the response of each mode independently. Performing this analysis require less time than DRHA. Modal Response Spectrum Analysis (MRSA): As it is obvious from its name, this method calculates the peak response of structure for each mode and combine them using modal combination rules based on the introduced spectra of ground motion. This method is expected to be fastest among Elastic analysis. Inelastic Analysis: Nonlinear Response History Analysis (NL-RHA): The most accurate strategy to address significant nonlinearities in structural dynamics is undoubtedly the nonlinear response history analysis which is similar to DRHA but extended to inelastic range by updating the stiffness matrix for every iteration. This onerous task, clearly increase the computational cost especially for unsymmetrical buildings that requires to be analyzed in a full 3D model for taking the torsional effects in to consideration. Modal Pushover Analysis (MPA): The Modal Pushover Analysis is basically the MRHA but extended to inelastic stage. After all, the MRHA cannot solve the system of dynamics because the resisting force fs(u; u_ ) is unknown for inelastic stage. The solution of MPA for this obstacle is using the previously recorded fs to evaluate system of dynamics. Extended Modal Pushover Analysis (EMPA): Expanded Modal pushover is a one of very recent proposed methods which evaluates response of structure under multi-directional excitation using the modal pushover analysis strategy. In one specific mode,the original pushover neglect the contribution of the directions different than characteristic one, this is reasonable in regular symmetric building but a structure with complex shape like long span arch bridges may go through strong modal coupling. This method intend to consider modal coupling while it take same time of computation as MPA. Coupled Nonlinear Static Pushover Analysis (CNSP): The EMPA includes the contribution of non-characteristic direction to the formal MPA procedure. However the static pushovers in EMPA are performed individually for every mode, accordingly the resulted values from different modes can be combined but this is only valid in elastic phase; as soon as any element in structure starts yielding the neutral axis of that section is no longer fixed for both response during the earthquake, meaning the longitudinal deflection unavoidably affect the transverse one or vice versa. To overcome this drawback, the CNSP suggests executing pushover analysis for governing modes of each direction at the same time. This strategy is estimated to be more accurate than MPA and EMPA, moreover the calculation time is reduced because only one pushover analysis is required. Regardless of the strategy, the accuracy of structural analysis is highly dependent on modelling and numerical integration approaches used in evaluation of each method. Therefore the widely used Finite Element Method is implemented in process of all analysis performed in this research. In order to address the study, chapter 2, starts with gathered information about constructed long span arch bridges, this chapter continuous with geometrical and material definition of new models. Chapter 3 provides the detailed information about structural analysis strategies; furthermore the step by step description of procedure of all methods is available in Appendix A. The document ends with the description of results and conclusion of chapter 4.

Criteria to determine seismic risk on sites. Application to Spanish dams

In this paper, the main steps necessary to evaluate the seismic risk on a site are discussed. Several examples from the authors practical experience are reported and a systematic procedure to study the seismic risk on a dam site is also shown. The characteristics of the available Spanish seismic information - mainly historical and non instrumental seismic records - are commented. Different types of seismic and geologic techniques to investigate the area under the dam are given. Finally, a probabilistic method to obtain from the given seismic intensities the design earthquake is summarized

Desarrollos metodológicos y aplicaciones hacia el cálculo de la peligrosidad sísmica en el ecuador continental y estudio de riesgo sísmico en la ciudad de Quito

En el presente trabajo de tesis se desarrolla, en primer lugar, un estudio de peligrosidad sísmica en Ecuador continental, siguiendo una metodología probabilista zonificada. El estudio se plantea a escala regional y presenta como principales aportaciones: 1) la elaboración de un Estado del Arte sobre Tectónica y Geología de Ecuador, concluyendo con la identificación de las principales fuentes sísmicas; 2) La confección de un Catálogo Sísmico de proyecto, recopilando información de distintas agencias, que ha sido homogeneizado a magnitud momento, Mw, depurado de réplicas y premonitores y corregido por la falta de completitud para la estimación de tasas en diferentes rangos de magnitud; 3) la propuesta de un nueva zonificación sísmica, definiendo las zonas sismogenéticas en tres regímenes tectónicos: cortical, subducción interfase y subducción in-slab; 4) la caracterización sísmica de cada zona estimando los parámetros de recurrencia y Magnitud Máxima (Mmax), considerando para este último parámetro una distribución de valores posibles en función de la sismicidad y tectónica, tras un exhaustivo análisis de los datos existentes; 5) la generación de mapas de peligrosidad sísmica de Ecuador continental en términos de aceleración pico (PGA) y espectral SA (T= 1s) , en ambos casos para periodos de retorno (PR) de 475, 975 y 2475 años; 6) La estimación de espectros de peligrosidad uniforme (UHS) y sismos de control mediante desagregación de la peligrosidad, para PR de 475 y 2475 años en 4 capitales de provincia: Quito, Esmeraldas, Guayaquil y Loja. Una segunda parte del trabajo se destina al cálculo del riesgo sísmico en el Barrio Mariscal Sucre de Quito, lo que supone incidir ya a una escala municipal. Como principales contribuciones de este trabajo se destacan: 1) definición del escenario sísmico que más contribuye a la peligrosidad en Quito, que actuará como input de cálculo del riesgo; 2) caracterización de la acción sísmica asociada a ese escenario, incluyendo resultados de microzonación y efecto local en la zona de estudio; 3) Elaboración de una Base de Datos partiendo de información catastral e identificación de las tipologías dominantes; 4) Asignación de clases de vulnerabilidad y obtención de porcentajes de daño esperado en cada clase ante la acción sísmica definida previamente, con la consiguiente representación de mapas de vulnerabilidad y daño; 5) mapas de indicadores globales del riesgo sísmico; 6) Base de datos georreferenciada con toda la información generada en el estudio. Cabe destacar que el trabajo, aunque no formula nuevos métodos, si plantea una metodología integral de cálculo del riesgo sísmico, incorporando avances en cada fase abordada, desde la estimación de la peligrosidad o la definición de escenarios sísmicos con carácter hibrido (probabilista-determinista), hasta la asignación de vulnerabilidades y estimación de escenarios de daño. Esta tesis trata de presentar contribuciones hacia el mejor conocimiento de la peligrosidad sísmica en Ecuador y el riesgo sísmico en Quito, siendo uno de los primeros estudios de tesis que se desarrolla sobre estos temas en el país. El trabajo puede servir de ejemplo y punto de partida para estudios futuros; además de ser replicable en otras ciudades y municipios de Ecuador. -------------------- ABSTRACT: ------------------ This thesis first develops a study of seismic hazard in mainland Ecuador, following a zoned, probabilistic methodology. The study considers a regional scale and presents as main contributions: 1) The development of a State of Art on the Tectonics and Geology of Ecuador, concluding with the identification of the main seismic sources; 2) The creation of a Seismic Catalog project, collecting information from different agencies, which has been homogenized to Moment magnitude, Mw, purged from aftershocks and premonitories and corrected for the lack of completeness to estimate rates in different maggnitude ranges; 3) The proposal of a new seismic zoning, defining the seismogenic zones in three tectonic regimes: cortical, subduction interface and subduction in-slab; 4) The seismic characterization of each zone, estimating the parameters of recurrence and Maximum Magnitude (Mmax), considering the latter as a distribution of possible values, depending on the seismicity and tectonics, and after a thorough analysis of the existing data; 5) Seismic hazard maps of continental Ecuador in terms of peak ground acceleration (PGA) and spectral SA(T=1), and return periods (PR) of 475, 975 and 2475 years; 6) Uniform hazard spectra (UHS) and control earthquakes obtained by hazard disaggregation, for PR 475 and 2475 years in four provincial capitals: Quito, Esmeraldas, Guayaquil and Loja. The second section focuses on the calculation of seismic risk in the Quito Mariscal Sucre parish, which is already supposed to be influencing at a municipal level. The main contributions here are the: 1) Definition of the seismic scenario that contributes most to the hazard in Quito, which acts as an input in the risk calculation; 2) Characterization of the seismic action associated with that scenario, including results of micro-zoning and local effect in the study area; 3) Development of a database, based on cadastral data and identification of key typologies; 4) Allocation of vulnerability classes and obtaining percentages of damage expected in each class faced with the seismic action previously defined, with the consequent representation of maps of vulnerability and damage; 5) Global maps of seismic risk indicators; 6) Geo-referenced database with all the information generated in the study. It should be noted that although new methods are not prescribed, this study does set a comprehensive methodology for the calculation of seismic risk, incorporating advances in each phase approached, from the hazard estimation, or definition of seismic scenarios applying a hybrid (deterministic-probabilistic) method, to the allocation of vulnerabilities and estimation of damage scenarios. This thesis aims to present contributions leading to a better understanding of seismic hazard in Ecuador and seismic risk in Quito, and is one of the first studies in the country to develop such themes. This study can serve as an example and starting point for future studies, which could replicate this methodology in other cities and municipalities.

Piezoelectric sensing and non-parametric statistical signal processing for health monitoring of hysteretic dampers used in seismic-resistant structures

The paper proposes a new application of non-parametric statistical processing of signals recorded from vibration tests for damage detection and evaluation on I-section steel segments. The steel segments investigated constitute the energy dissipating part of a new type of hysteretic damper that is used for passive control of buildings and civil engineering structures subjected to earthquake-type dynamic loadings. Two I-section steel segments with different levels of damage were instrumented with piezoceramic sensors and subjected to controlled white noise random vibrations. The signals recorded during the tests were processed using two non-parametric methods (the power spectral density method and the frequency response function method) that had never previously been applied to hysteretic dampers. The appropriateness of these methods for quantifying the level of damage on the I-shape steel segments is validated experimentally. Based on the results of the random vibrations, the paper proposes a new index that predicts the level of damage and the proximity of failure of the hysteretic damper

Differential roles of Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent kinases in posttetanic potentiation at input selective glutamatergic pathways

The electrosensory lateral line lobe (ELL) of the electric fish Apteronotus leptorhynchus is a layered medullary region receiving electroreceptor input that terminates on basal dendrites of interneurons and projection (pyramidal) cells. The molecular layer of the ELL contains two distinct glutamatergic feedback pathways that terminate on the proximal (ventral molecular layer, VML) and distal (dorsal molecular layer) apical dendrites of pyramidal cells. Western blot analysis with an antibody directed against mammalian Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent kinase 2, α subunit (CaMK2α) recognized a protein of identical size in the brain of A. leptorhynchus. Immunohistochemistry demonstrated that CaMK2 α expression in the ELL was restricted to fibers and terminals in the VML. Posttetanic potentiation (PTP) could be readily elicited in pyramidal cells by stimulation of either VML or DML in brain slices of the ELL. PTP in the VML was blocked by extracellular application of a CaMK2 antagonist (KN62) while intracellular application of KN62 or a CaMK2 inhibitory peptide had no effect, consistent with the presynaptic localization of CaMK2 α in VML. PTP in the dorsal molecular layer was not affected by extracellular application of KN62. Anti-Hebbian plasticity has also been demonstrated in the VML, but was not affected by KN62. These results demonstrate that, while PTP can occur independent of CaMK2, it is, in some synapses, dependent on this kinase.

The roles of the two proton input channels in cytochrome c oxidase from Rhodobacter sphaeroides probed by the effects of site-directed mutations on time-resolved electrogenic intraprotein proton transfer

The crystal structures of cytochrome c oxidase from both bovine and Paracoccus denitrificans reveal two putative proton input channels that connect the heme-copper center, where dioxygen is reduced, to the internal aqueous phase. In this work we have examined the role of these two channels, looking at the effects of site-directed mutations of residues observed in each of the channels of the cytochrome c oxidase from Rhodobacter sphaeroides. A photoelectric technique was used to monitor the time-resolved electrogenic proton transfer steps associated with the photo-induced reduction of the ferryl-oxo form of heme a3 (Fe4+ = O2−) to the oxidized form (Fe3+OH−). This redox step requires the delivery of a “chemical” H+ to protonate the reduced oxygen atom and is also coupled to proton pumping. It is found that mutations in the K channel (K362M and T359A) have virtually no effect on the ferryl-oxo-to-oxidized (F-to-Ox) transition, although steady-state turnover is severely limited. In contrast, electrogenic proton transfer at this step is strongly suppressed by mutations in the D channel. The results strongly suggest that the functional roles of the two channels are not the separate delivery of chemical or pumped protons, as proposed recently [Iwata, S., Ostermeier, C., Ludwig, B. & Michel, H. (1995) Nature (London) 376, 660–669]. The D channel is likely to be involved in the uptake of both “chemical” and “pumped” protons in the F-to-Ox transition, whereas the K channel is probably idle at this partial reaction and is likely to be used for loading the enzyme with protons at some earlier steps of the catalytic cycle. This conclusion agrees with different redox states of heme a3 in the K362M and E286Q mutants under aerobic steady-state turnover conditions.

Impact of Spatial Soil and Climate Input Data Aggregation on Regional Yield Simulations

This work was financially supported by the German Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture (BMEL) through the Federal Office for Agriculture and Food (BLE), (2851ERA01J). FT and RPR were supported by FACCE MACSUR (3200009600) through the Finnish Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MMM). EC, HE and EL were supported by The Swedish Research Council for Environment, Agricultural Sciences and Spatial Planning (220-2007-1218) and by the strategic funding ‘Soil-Water-Landscape’ from the faculty of Natural Resources and Agricultural Sciences (Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences) and thank professor P-E Jansson (Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm) for support. JC, HR and DW thank the INRA ACCAF metaprogramm for funding and Eric Casellas from UR MIAT INRA for support. CB was funded by the Helmholtz project “REKLIM—Regional Climate Change”. CK was funded by the HGF Alliance “Remote Sensing and Earth System Dynamics” (EDA). FH was funded by the German Research Foundation (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, DFG) under the Grant FOR1695. FE and SS acknowledge support by the German Science Foundation (project EW 119/5-1). HH, GZ, SS, TG and FE thank Andreas Enders and Gunther Krauss (INRES, University of Bonn) for support. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Increasing the quality of seismic interpretation

Euan Macrae was funded by a NERC Open CASE PhD award (NE/F013728/1) with Midland Valley Exploration Ltd. as the industry partner. We thank the 763 geoscientists for their participation, and in particular, the reference experts who gave their time freely to the project. Marian Scott (University of Glasgow, UK) is thanked for assisting with the statistical analysis. Four reviewers are thanked for their constructive comments which improved the manuscript.

Basement structure of the Hontomín CO2 storage site (Spain) determined by integration of microgravity and 3D seismic data

We dedicate this paper to the memory of Prof. Andres Perez Estaún, who was a great and committed scientist, wonderful colleague and even better friend. The datasets in this work have been funded by Fundación Ciudad de la Energía (Spanish Government, www.ciuden.es) and by the European Union through the “European Energy Programme 15 for Recovery” and the Compostilla OXYCFB300 project. Dr. Juan Alcalde is currently funded by NERC grant NE/M007251/1. Simon Campbell and Samuel Cheyney are acknowledged for thoughtful comments on gravity inversion

Control of time-dependent biological processes by temporally patterned input

Temporal patterning of biological variables, in the form of oscillations and rhythms on many time scales, is ubiquitous. Altering the temporal pattern of an input variable greatly affects the output of many biological processes. We develop here a conceptual framework for a quantitative understanding of such pattern dependence, focusing particularly on nonlinear, saturable, time-dependent processes that abound in biophysics, biochemistry, and physiology. We show theoretically that pattern dependence is governed by the nonlinearity of the input–output transformation as well as its time constant. As a result, only patterns on certain time scales permit the expression of pattern dependence, and processes with different time constants can respond preferentially to different patterns. This has implications for temporal coding and decoding, and allows differential control of processes through pattern. We show how pattern dependence can be quantitatively predicted using only information from steady, unpatterned input. To apply our ideas, we analyze, in an experimental example, how muscle contraction depends on the pattern of motorneuron firing.

Decoding temporally encoded sensory input by cortical oscillations and thalamic phase comparators

The temporally encoded information obtained by vibrissal touch could be decoded “passively,” involving only input-driven elements, or “actively,” utilizing intrinsically driven oscillators. A previous study suggested that the trigeminal somatosensory system of rats does not obey the bottom-up order of activation predicted by passive decoding. Thus, we have tested whether this system obeys the predictions of active decoding. We have studied cortical single units in the somatosensory cortices of anesthetized rats and guinea pigs and found that about a quarter of them exhibit clear spontaneous oscillations, many of them around whisking frequencies (≈10 Hz). The frequencies of these oscillations could be controlled locally by glutamate. These oscillations could be forced to track the frequency of induced rhythmic whisker movements at a stable, frequency-dependent, phase difference. During these stimulations, the response intensities of multiunits at the thalamic recipient layers of the cortex decreased, and their latencies increased, with increasing input frequency. These observations are consistent with thalamocortical loops implementing phase-locked loops, circuits that are most efficient in decoding temporally encoded information like that obtained by active vibrissal touch. According to this model, and consistent with our results, populations of thalamic “relay” neurons function as phase “comparators” that compare cortical timing expectations with the actual input timing and represent the difference by their population output rate.

The circadian clock controls the expression pattern of the circadian input photoreceptor, phytochrome B

Developmental and physiological responses are regulated by light throughout the entire life cycle of higher plants. To sense changes in the light environment, plants have developed various photoreceptors, including the red/far-red light-absorbing phytochromes and blue light-absorbing cryptochromes. A wide variety of physiological responses, including most light responses, also are modulated by circadian rhythms that are generated by an endogenous oscillator, the circadian clock. To provide information on local time, circadian clocks are synchronized and entrained by environmental time cues, of which light is among the most important. Light-driven entrainment of the Arabidopsis circadian clock has been shown to be mediated by phytochrome A (phyA), phytochrome B (phyB), and cryptochromes 1 and 2, thus affirming the roles of these photoreceptors as input regulators to the plant circadian clock. Here we show that the expression of PHYB∷LUC reporter genes containing the promoter and 5′ untranslated region of the tobacco NtPHYB1 or Arabidopsis AtPHYB genes fused to the luciferase (LUC) gene exhibit robust circadian oscillations in transgenic plants. We demonstrate that the abundance of PHYB RNA retains this circadian regulation and use a PHYB∷Luc fusion protein to show that the rate of PHYB synthesis is also rhythmic. The abundance of bulk PHYB protein, however, exhibits only weak circadian rhythmicity, if any. These data suggest that photoreceptor gene expression patterns may be significant in the daily regulation of plant physiology and indicate an unexpectedly intimate relationship between the components of the input pathway and the putative circadian clock mechanism in higher plants.

The spinal biology in humans and animals of pain states generated by persistent small afferent input

Behavioral models indicate that persistent small afferent input, as generated by tissue injury, results in a hyperalgesia at the site of injury and a tactile allodynia in areas adjacent to the injury site. Hyperalgesia reflects a sensitization of the peripheral terminal and a central facilitation evoked by the persistent small afferent input. The allodynia reflects a central sensitization. The spinal pharmacology of these pain states has been defined in the unanesthetized rat prepared with spinal catheters for injection and dialysis. After tissue injury, excitatory transmitters (e.g., glutamate and substance P) acting though N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) and neurokinin 1 receptors initiate a cascade that evokes release of (i) NO, (ii) cyclooxygenase products, and (iii) activation of several kinases. Spinal dialysis show amino acid and prostanoid release after cutaneous injury. Spinal neurokinin 1, NMDA, and non-NMDA receptors enhance spinal prostaglandin E2 release. Spinal prostaglandins facilitate release of spinal amino acids and peptides. Activation by intrathecal injection of receptors on spinal C fiber terminals (μ,/∂ opiate, α2 adrenergic, neuropeptide Y) prevents release of primary afferent peptides and spinal amino acids and blocks acute and facilitated pain states. Conversely, consistent with their role in facilitated processing, NMDA, cyclooxygenase 2, and NO synthase inhibitors act to diminish only hyperalgesia. Importantly, spinal delivery of several of these agents diminishes human injury pain states. This efficacy emphasizes (i) the role of facilitated states in humans, (ii) shows the importance of spinal systems in human pain processing, and (iii) indicates that these preclinical mechanisms reflect processes that regulate the human pain experience.