Legal europeanization as legal transformation : some insights from Swiss 'outer Europe'

The "Europeanization" of non-EU countries' laws is predominantly seen as an "export" of the EU acquis, especially in the case of so-called "quasi-member" states such as Switzerland. Based on an examination of the Swiss experience, this paper highlights the flaws of this conceptualization: the Europeanization of Swiss Law is a highly differentiated phenomenon, encompassing several forms of approximation to EU Law. All of these forms fall short of an "export" of norms, and result in the creation of something new: a "Europeanized law" that is similar to, but qualitatively different from, EU Law. Another drawback of the "export" metaphor is the emphasis it places on the isomorphism of positive legislation. Europeanization goes deeper than that. As shown in this paper, it is a process of transformation involving not only positive law, but also legal thinking. The Swiss case demonstrates how significant such deeper transformations can be: the Europeanization of positive law has induced an alteration of the traditional canon of legal interpretation. It also demonstrates how problematic such transformations can be: the above-mentioned alteration has not given rise to a new and universally accepted canon of interpretation. This reflects the tension between the need for clear "rules of reference" for EU legal materials - which are required in order to restore coherence and predictability to an extensively Europeanized legal system - and the reluctance to give a legal value to foreign legal materials - which is rooted in a traditional understanding of the concept of "law". Such tension, in turn, shows what deep and difficult transformations are required in order to establish a viable model of legal integration outside supranational structures.

Reproduci��n social de familias de ni��os menores de 7 a��os

Por medio de muestreo casual-estratificado-proporcional, en este estudio se caracterizaron las formas de reproducci��n social de 80 familias con ni��os menores de 7 a��os, residentes en el ��rea de influencia del HU-USP. Los perfiles de reproducci��n social fueron construidos utiliz��ndose una base te��rico-metodol��gica-operacional que pre defini�� tres grupos sociales homog��neos. De la muestra total, 36,1% fueron m��s excluidas, tanto en el momento de la producci��n como en el de consumo, 48,2% parec��an luchar por la integraci��n en la vida social y 15,7% presentaron inserci��n calificada en la producci��n, mostr��ndose protegidas de la precariedad del trabajo, con un patr��n diferenciado de consumo y de representaci��n colectiva y con mayor posibilidad de uso del espacio geo-social. Los resultados demostraron que la metodolog��a utilizada es adecuada para caracterizar los perfiles de reproducci��n social, evidenciando que los grupos sociales que componen una misma sociedad presentaron condiciones de trabajo y de vida distintas y que cada grupo social est�� expuesto a determinados patrones de fortalecimiento y de desgaste.

Sudden death: ethical and legal problems of post-mortem forensic genetic testing for hereditary cardiac diseases.

Hereditary non-structural diseases such as catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (CPVT), long QT, and the Brugada syndrome as well as structural disease such as hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) and arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC) cause a significant percentage of sudden cardiac deaths in the young. In these cases, genetic testing can be useful and does not require proxy consent if it is carried out at the request of judicial authorities as part of a forensic death investigation. Mutations in several genes are implicated in arrhythmic syndromes, including SCN5A, KCNQ1, KCNH2, RyR2, and genes causing HCM. If the victim's test is positive, this information is important for relatives who might be themselves at risk of carrying the disease-causing mutation. There is no consensus about how professionals should proceed in this context. This article discusses the ethical and legal arguments in favour of and against three options: genetic testing of the deceased victim only; counselling of relatives before testing the victim; counselling restricted to relatives of victims who tested positive for mutations of serious and preventable diseases. Legal cases are mentioned that pertain to the duty of geneticists and other physicians to warn relatives. Although the claim for a legal duty is tenuous, recent publications and guidelines suggest that geneticists and others involved in the multidisciplinary approach of sudden death (SD) cases may, nevertheless, have an ethical duty to inform relatives of SD victims. Several practical problems remain pertaining to the costs of testing, the counselling and to the need to obtain permission of judicial authorities.

The legal and ethical framework governing Body Donation in Europe - A review of current practice and recommendations for good practice

Discussions at the inaugural meeting of a Trans-European Pedagogic Research Group for Anatomical Sciences highlighted the fact that there exist considerable variations in the legal and ethical frameworks throughout Europe concerning body bequests for anatomical examination. Such differences appear to reflect cultural and religious variations as well as different legal and constitutional frameworks. For example, there are different views concerning the "ownership" of cadavers and concerning the need (perceived by different societies and national politicians) for legislation specifically related to anatomical dissection. Furthermore, there are different views concerning the acceptability of using unclaimed bodies that have not given informed consent. Given that in Europe there have been a series of controversial anatomical exhibitions and also a public (televised) dissection/autopsy, and given that the commercial sale or transport of anatomical material across national boundaries is strongly debated, it would seem appropriate to "harmonise" the situation (at least in the European Union). This paper summarises the legal situation in a variety of European countries and suggests examples of good practice. In particular, it recommends that all countries should adopt clear legal frameworks to regulate the acceptance of donations for medical education and research. It stresses the need for informed consent, with donors being given clear information upon which to base their decision, intentions to bequest being made by the donor before death and encourages donors to discuss their wishes to bequeath with relatives prior to death. Departments are encouraged, where they feel it appropriate, to hold Services of Thanksgiving and Commemoration for those who have donated their bodies. Finally, there needs to be legislation to regulate transport of bodies or body parts across national borders and a discouragement of any moves towards commercialisation in relation to bequests.

A regula����o das rela����es de trabalho e o gerenciamento de recursos humanos em enfermagem

Este artigo tem a finalidade de discorrer sobre a regula����o das rela����es de trabalho na enfermagem, subsidiando a pr��tica gerencial do enfermeiro, no que se refere aos direitos e obriga����es de empregados e empregadores, baseando-se na Consolida����o das Leis Trabalhistas (CLT) e das normas constitucionais. Enfatiza algumas normatiza����es que suscitam d��vidas e conflitos no cotidiano profissional do enfermeiro, tais como: dura����o da jornada de trabalho, per��odos de descanso intra e entre jornadas, horas extraordin��rias, descanso semanal remunerado e altera����es de turnos de trabalho, considerando que a conforma����o do exerc��cio profissional com o processo legal amplia as possibilidades do enfermeiro atuar junto �� equipe com mais propriedade e seguran��a, respeitando os direitos dos profissionais e dos clientes, reduzindo, ainda, eventuais problemas jur��dicos inerentes aos direitos e deveres trabalhistas.

Retrospective research: What are the ethical and legal requirements?

Retrospective research is conducted on already available data and/or biologic material. Whether such research requires that patients specifically consent to the use of "their" data continues to stir controversy. From a legal and ethical point of view, it depends on several factors. The main criteria to be considered are whether the data or the sample is anonymous, whether the researcher is the one who collected it and whether the patient was told of the possible research use. In Switzerland, several laws delineate the procedure to be followed. The definition of "anonymous" is open to some interpretation. In addition, it is debatable whether consent waivers that are legally admissible for data extend to research involving human biological samples. In a few years, a new Swiss federal law on human research could clarify the regulatory landscape. Meanwhile, hospital-internal guidelines may impose stricter conditions than required by federal or cantonal law. Conversely, Swiss and European ethical texts may suggest greater flexibility and call for a looser interpretation of existing laws. The present article provides an overview of the issues for physicians, scientists, ethics committee members and policy makers involved in retrospective research in Switzerland. It aims at provoking more open discussions of the regulatory problems and possible future legal and ethical solutions.

Mudan��as na assist��ncia ao idoso ap��s promulga����o do Estatuto do Idoso segundo profissionais de hospital geri��trico

Este estudo objetivou conhecer o contato da equipe multiprofissional com o Estatuto do Idoso e qual a interfer��ncia dessa Lei na assist��ncia ao idoso institucionalizado. O cen��rio do estudo foi um Hospital Geri��trico de S��o Paulo, onde residem 297 idosos. Participaram 35 profissionais integrantes da equipe multiprofissional da Institui����o que responderam a um question��rio composto de perguntas abertas e fechadas. Os resultados foram divididos em categorias e submetidos �� an��lise descritiva. Destacou-se que 68,6% dos profissionais acreditam estar ocorrendo mudan��as na assist��ncia, mesmo que lentamente, ap��s a promulga����o da Lei, e que elas ocorreram na equipe multiprofissional, que buscou especializa����o espec��fica, melhorando a assist��ncia; nas institui����es que se adaptaram para atender ��s especificidades dos idosos; nos pr��prios idosos e em suas fam��lias que, sentindo-se respaldados pela Lei, passaram a reivindicar mais os seus direitos.

Menores, educaci��n y conflicto armado: un an��lisis desde la realidad africana 15 a��os despu��s del Informe Machel

Si bien en los ��ltimos a��os ��frica Subsahariana ha registrado un notable descenso del n��mero de conflictos armados, un buen n��mero de pa��ses sigue padeciendo las consecuencias de la violencia armada, especialmente algunos contextos como el de la Rep��blica Democr��tica del Congo, la regi��n de Darfur (oeste de Sud��n) o Somalia, por citar algunos ejemplos. Tal y como desde el ��mbito institucional (Naciones Unidas u ONG) o el acad��mico llevan se��alando desde hace varios a��os, la principal v��ctima de la violencia suele ser la poblaci��n civil, principalmente los menores y las mujeres. El presente art��culo tiene como objetivo analizar el impacto que los conflictos armados africanos tienen en la infancia y en aspectos tan importantes como su educaci��n. Este objeto de estudio cuenta en los ��ltimos a��os con un importante referente como fue la publicaci��n en el a��o 1996 del denominado ��Informe Machel��. Quince a��os despu��s de la aparici��n de este documento, resulta de inter��s hacer un peque��o balance sobre algunos de los avances, d��ficits y principales retos de la protecci��n de los menores en conflictos armados.

Estatuto da Crian��a e do Adolescente: a vis��o dos trabalhadores sobre sua pr��tica

O Estatuto da Crian��a e do Adolescente impulsionou aumento significativo dos programas que assistem este grupo populacional. Entretanto, n��o significou mudan��as na forma de aproxima����o deste objeto. Esse estudo buscou conhecer as percep����es dos trabalhadores dos programas de atendimento ao adolescente, suas dificuldades, e formas de super��-las. O cen��rio foi o Munic��pio de S��o Carlos (SP). A metodologia �� descritiva, qualitativa. Os dados foram coletados junto a institui����es que atendem aos adolescentes, por meio de documentos e de entrevistas. Os depoimentos foram tratados segundo referencial de Bourdieu. Os resultados mostraram que as institui����es percebem a adolesc��ncia e o adolescente desvestidos de sua socialidade e historicidade, e que o objeto da aten����o continua o adolescente com problemas, e n��o o sujeito de direitos. Uma mudan��a mais radical da vis��o sobre estes adolescentes possibilitar�� a constru����o de novos instrumentos dos processos de trabalho, capazes de alcan����-los na sua integralidade.