Good intents but low impacts: Various determinants for different indicators of overall energy use

Energy consumption in industrialized countries by far exceeds a sustainable level. Previous research on determinants of overall consumption levels has yielded contradictory results as to what the main drivers are. While research on the relationship of environmental concerns and pro-environmental behavior emphasizes the importance of motivational aspects, more impact-oriented research challenges these findings and underlines the impacts of a person’s social standing. The aim of our research was to determine which amount of per-capita energy consumption can be explained by structural, socio-demographic, and pro-environmentally motivational variables. Data come from standardized interviews with a representative sample (N=1014) in Germany. Different indicators of per-capita use were collected and will provide the basis for calculating the overall consumption level. In addition, person variables, lifestyle milieus, self-reported energy use, and motivational variables were assessed. First regression analyses show various patterns of determinants for different indicators of overall energy use. While variance in self-reported use is mainly explained by environmental concern, more impact-oriented indicators, such as the size of personal living space and distances of vacation trips, predominantly correlate with status-relevant predictors. These preliminary results support the suspicion that although environmentally aware people intend to reduce their energy use, they rarely go beyond low-impact actions.

Energy Efficient Multimedia Communications in IEEE 802.11 Networks

During the last decade wireless mobile communications have progressively become part of the people’s daily lives, leading users to expect to be “alwaysbest-connected” to the Internet, regardless of their location or time of day. This is indeed motivated by the fact that wireless access networks are increasingly ubiquitous, through different types of service providers, together with an outburst of thoroughly portable devices, namely laptops, tablets, mobile phones, among others. The “anytime and anywhere” connectivity criterion raises new challenges regarding the devices’ battery lifetime management, as energy becomes the most noteworthy restriction of the end-users’ satisfaction. This wireless access context has also stimulated the development of novel multimedia applications with high network demands, although lacking in energy-aware design. Therefore, the relationship between energy consumption and the quality of the multimedia applications perceived by end-users should be carefully investigated. This dissertation addresses energy-efficient multimedia communications in the IEEE 802.11 standard, which is the most widely used wireless access technology. It advances the literature by proposing a unique empirical assessment methodology and new power-saving algorithms, always bearing in mind the end-users’ feedback and evaluating quality perception. The new EViTEQ framework proposed in this thesis, for measuring video transmission quality and energy consumption simultaneously, in an integrated way, reveals the importance of having an empirical and high-accuracy methodology to assess the trade-off between quality and energy consumption, raised by the new end-users’ requirements. Extensive evaluations conducted with the EViTEQ framework revealed its flexibility and capability to accurately report both video transmission quality and energy consumption, as well as to be employed in rigorous investigations of network interface energy consumption patterns, regardless of the wireless access technology. Following the need to enhance the trade-off between energy consumption and application quality, this thesis proposes the Optimized Power save Algorithm for continuous Media Applications (OPAMA). By using the end-users’ feedback to establish a proper trade-off between energy consumption and application performance, OPAMA aims at enhancing the energy efficiency of end-users’ devices accessing the network through IEEE 802.11. OPAMA performance has been thoroughly analyzed within different scenarios and application types, including a simulation study and a real deployment in an Android testbed. When compared with the most popular standard power-saving mechanisms defined in the IEEE 802.11 standard, the obtained results revealed OPAMA’s capability to enhance energy efficiency, while keeping end-users’ Quality of Experience within the defined bounds. Furthermore, OPAMA was optimized to enable superior energy savings in multiple station environments, resulting in a new proposal called Enhanced Power Saving Mechanism for Multiple station Environments (OPAMA-EPS4ME). The results of this thesis highlight the relevance of having a highly accurate methodology to assess energy consumption and application quality when aiming to optimize the trade-off between energy and quality. Additionally, the obtained results based both on simulation and testbed evaluations, show clear benefits from employing userdriven power-saving techniques, such as OPAMA, instead of IEEE 802.11 standard power-saving approaches.

An Application-Layer RESTful Sleepy Nodes Implementation For Internet of Things Systems

Two of the main issues in wireless industrial Internet of Things applications are interoperability and network lifetime. In this work we extend a semantic interoperability platform and introduce an application-layer sleepy nodes protocol that can leverage on information stored in semantic repositories. We propose an integration platform for managing the sleep states and an application layer protocol based upon the Constraint Application Layer protocol. We evaluate our system on windowing based task allocation strategies, aiming for lower overall energy consumption that results in higher network lifetime.

Knowledge of exercise recommendations and energy intake from foods and beverages in relation to exercise behaviors within two Hispanic border communities

This research is a secondary analysis of the Qué Sabrosa Vida population-based cross-sectional study of two predominately Mexican American communities located along the Texas-Mexico border in 2000. There were two aims for this research. The first was to determine the relationship between knowledge of exercise and water recommendations, and exercise behavior and water consumption. The second was to determine the relationship between exercise behavior and percentage of energy consumption from beverages. Chi-square analysis revealed the majority of both populations had adequate knowledge about water and exercise recommendations, although significant percentages of the populations (>40%) did not consume water or exercise in adequate amounts. Knowledge was found to be a component of both behaviors, as it was more prevalent in the adults who exercised and consumed water in adequate amounts. Analysis of variance revealed no significant difference between overall beverage calorie percentage and exercise level (all p-values > 0.05); both regions and genders reported ∼18% of total caloric intake from beverages. There was no disproportionate influence of beverage calories on total caloric intake, after controlling for water consumption and independent of exercise behavior. These findings suggest that overall caloric intake, from both foods and beverages, may be the most influential factor to the energy imbalance contributing to the obesity crisis in these Hispanic border populations. ^

Targeting AKT/mTOR Signaling Pathways During Murine Skin Tumor Promotion and the Impact of Dietary Energy Balance Manipulation

The prevalence of obesity has continued to rise over the last several decades in the United States lending to overall increases in risk for chronic diseases including many types of cancer. In contrast, reduction in energy consumption via calorie restriction (CR) has been shown to be a potent inhibitor of carcinogenesis across a broad range of species and tumor types. Previous data has demonstrated differential signaling through Akt and mTOR via the IGF-1R and other growth factor receptors across the diet-induced obesity (DIO)/CR spectrum. Furthermore, mTORC1 is known to be regulated directly via nutrient availability, supporting its role in the link between epithelial carcinogenesis and diet-induced obesity. In an effort to better understand the importance of mTORC1 in the context of both positive and negative energy balance during epithelial carcinogenesis, we have employed the use of specific pharmacological inhibitors, rapamycin (mTORC1 inhibitor) and metformin (AMPK activator) to target mTORC1 or various components of this pathway during skin tumor promotion. Two-stage skin carcinogenesis studies demonstrated that mTORC1 inhibition via rapamycin, metformin or combination treatments greatly inhibited skin tumor development in normal, overweight and obese mice. Furthermore, mechanisms by which these chemopreventive agents may be exerting their anti-tumor effects were explored. In addition, the effect of these compounds on the epidermal proliferative response was analyzed and drastic decreases in epidermal hyperproliferation and hyperplasia were found. Rapamycin also inhibited dermal inflammatory cell infiltration in a dose-dependent manner. Both compounds also blocked or attenuated TPA-induced signaling through epidermal mTORC1 as well as several downstream targets. In addition, inhibition of this pathway by metformin appeared to be, at least in part, dependent on AMPK activation in the skin. Overall, the data indicate that pharmacological strategies targeting this pathway offset the tumor-enhancing effects of DIO and may serve as possible CR mimetics. They suggest that mTORC1 contributes significantly to the process of skin tumor promotion, specifically during dietary energy balance effects. Exploiting the mechanistic information underlying dietary energy balance responsive pathways will help translate decades of research into effective strategies for prevention of epithelial carcinogenesis.

Gill tissue masses and oxygen consumption of Gobionotothen gibberifrons, Notothenia coriiceps and Zoarces viviparus

Mechanisms responsive to hypercapnia (elevated CO2 concentrations) and shaping branchial energy turnover were investigated in isolated perfused gills of two Antarctic Notothenioids (Gobionotothen gibberifrons, Notothenia coriiceps). Branchial oxygen consumption was measured under normo- versus hypercapnic conditions (10,000 ppm CO2) at high extracellular pH values. The fractional costs of ion regulation, protein and RNA synthesis in the energy budgets were determined using specific inhibitors. Overall gill energy turnover was maintained under pH compensated hypercapnia in both Antarctic species as well as in a temperate zoarcid (Zoarces viviparus). However, fractional energy consumption by the examined processes rose drastically in G. gibberifrons (100-180%), and to a lesser extent in N. coriiceps gills (7-56%). In conclusion, high CO2 concentrations under conditions of compensated acidosis induce cost increments in epithelial processes, however, at maintained overall rates of branchial energy turnover.

Effectiveness of promoting energy efficiency in Thailand -- the case of air conditioners

This paper aims to identify the magnitude of energy efficiency improvement, which has been promoted through energy efficiency labeling and the Minimum Energy Performance Standard, and to compare this against the increase in the number of products and the average increase in cooling capacity. Air conditioners (ACs) are one of the major contributors to energy consumption in a household. To assess the magnitude of this factor, we developed a formula to decompose total energy consumption from ACs into the number of ACs, their average cooling capacity, and energy efficiency. In the case of ACs in Thailand, energy efficiency improvement has offset the increase in the average AC cooling capacity. However, energy consumption from ACs increases with the number of ACs.

Assessment of energy efficiency and sustainability scenarios in the transport system

Background Energy Policy is one of the main drivers of Transport Policy. A number of strategies to reduce current energy consumption trends in the transport sector have been designed over the last decades. They include fuel taxes, more efficient technologies and changing travel behavior through demand regulation. But energy market has a high degree of uncertainty and the effectiveness of those policy options should be assessed. Methods A scenario based assessment methodology has been developed in the frame of the EU project STEPS. It provides an integrated view of Energy efficiency, environment, social and competitiveness impacts of the different strategies. It has been applied at European level and to five specific Regions. Concluding remarks The results are quite site specific dependent. However they show that regulation measures appear to be more effective than new technology investments. Higher energy prices could produce on their turn a deterioration of competitiveness and a threat for social goals.

An energy-efficient strategy for combined RSS-PDR indoor localization

We propose an optimization-based framework to minimize the energy consumption in a sensor network when using an indoor localization system based on the combination of received signal strength (RSS) and pedestrian dead reckoning (PDR). The objective is to find the RSS localization frequency and the number of RSS measurements used at each localization round that jointly minimize the total consumed energy, while ensuring at the same time a desired accuracy in the localization result. The optimization approach leverages practical models to predict the localization error and the overall energy consumption for combined RSS-PDR localization systems. The performance of the proposed strategy is assessed through simulation, showing energy savings with respect to other approaches while guaranteeing a target accuracy.

Combining series elastic actuation and magneto-rheological damping for the control of agile locomotion

All-terrain robot locomotion is an active topic of research. Search and rescue maneuvers and exploratory missions could benefit from robots with the abilities of real animals. However, technological barriers exist to ultimately achieving the actuation system, which is able to meet the exigent requirements of these robots. This paper describes the locomotioncontrol of a leg prototype, designed and developed to make a quadruped walk dynamically while exhibiting compliant interaction with the environment. The actuation system of the leg is based on the hybrid use of series elasticity and magneto-rheological dampers, which provide variable compliance for natural-looking motion and improved interaction with the ground. The locomotioncontrol architecture has been proposed to exploit natural leg dynamics in order to improve energy efficiency. Results show that the controller achieves a significant reduction in energy consumption during the leg swing phase thanks to the exploitation of inherent leg dynamics. Added to this, experiments with the real leg prototype show that the combined use of series elasticity and magneto-rheologicaldamping at the knee provide a 20 % reduction in the energy wasted in braking the knee during its extension in the leg stance phase.

Water harvesting for young trees using Peltier plates powered by photovoltaic solar energy

Young trees transplanted from nursery into open field require a minimum amount of soil moisture to successfully root in their new location, especially in dry-climate areas. One possibility is to obtain the required water from air moisture. This can be achieved by reducing the temperature of a surface below the air dew point temperature, inducing water vapor condensation on the surface. The temperature of a surface can be reduced by applying the thermoelectric effect, with Peltier modules powered by electricity. Here, we present a system that generates electricity with a solar photovoltaic module, stores it in a battery, and finally, it uses the electricity at the moment in which air humidity and temperature are optima to maximize water condensation while minimizing energy consumption. Also, a method to reduce the evaporation of the condensed water is proposed. The objective of the system, rather than irrigating young plants in such a degree as to boost their growth, is to maintain them alive in the dryer periods.

Realidad estratégica de la sostenibilidad de los recursos naturales: La explotación del hierro

Es en el campo de los recursos naturales y su aplicación a la industria, el entorno donde se desarrolla esta Tesis. El objetivo de la misma es demostrar cómo la minería del hierro puede resultar una actividad sostenible, logrando continuar de esta manera la estrecha relación de siempre entre las necesidades del hombre y la pervivencia de los recursos naturales. Es en la minería del hierro donde hace mayor énfasis este trabajo, dando lugar a un nuevo Indicador Sostenible que intenta evaluar las explotaciones de mineral de hierro desde una visión sostenible, empleando el consumo energético y las emisiones de CO2 como principales herramientas. Como se observa en el día a día, el tema de la sostenibilidad es de plena actualidad, lográndose en este trabajo implicar, tanto a la eficiencia energética, como al control de emisiones de gases efecto invernadero; ambas herramientas cobran más importancia cada día que pasa. La Tesis se desarrolla en 5 capítulos, aparte de su bibliografía correspondiente. En el primer capítulo se introduce el sentido de la sostenibilidad, desde sus inicios conceptuales, hasta sus actuales clasificaciones y definiciones empleadas; todo ello desde el punto de vista de los recursos naturales, y más habitualmente desde la minería. Resulta llamativo el contraste de opiniones, en lo que se ha dado a llamar la paradoja de la minería sostenible, quedando tras su lectura, la posición de la minería en una situación, si no ventajosa, si de equilibrio en importancia entre las necesidades a cubrir y el agotamiento de recursos. El segundo capítulo nos muestra el entorno donde se va a conducir la Tesis. El marco que engloba este trabajo se extiende desde la extracción del mineral de hierro (minería), su tratamiento y concentración (mineralurgia), su venta a los hornos altos (mercados) hasta su posterior fabricación en acero terminado (siderurgia). En este capítulo se presentan los principales actores que entrarán en el sector de la minería del hierro (productores y fabricantes) incluyendo una serie de datos estadísticos de gran interés para el desarrollo de la Tesis. El tercer capítulo se refiere al proceso completo que precisa la actividad sobre la que se va a evaluar la sostenibilidad. Es donde se definen, paso a paso, y obteniendo todos los datos de consumos energéticos y emisiones de CO2, las diferentes etapas por las que pasa el mineral de hierro, hasta encontrarse laminado en la acería. Es aquí donde se analizan los diversos tipos de yacimientos de hierro dispersos por el mundo y el mineral extraído, de manera que las propiedades aprendidas se puedan emplear más adelante en un indicador, y que así diferencie la sostenibilidad en función de los orígenes motivo de las necesidades energéticas para su transformación. El capítulo 4 consta de dos bloques: el uso de las herramientas de medida de la sostenibilidad, a día de hoy en el mundo industrial, y de una manera pormenorizada, el consumo energético y sus emisiones medioambientales como herramienta de gestión ambiental para la minería del hierro. Esta herramienta resultará básica para el cálculo del indicador buscado para la medida de la sostenibilidad. El capítulo 5 constituye el núcleo de la tesis, y supone el desarrollo del indicador, la metodología de uso y las conclusiones obtenidas. A través de varios ejemplos se logra entender la aplicación del indicador, dando lugar a una clasificación sostenible sencilla y práctica, situando en orden las diferentes explotaciones en función de un nivel de sostenibilidad determinado. Este último capítulo da origen al Indicador Sostenible Energético buscado, mostrándose en todo su esplendor y descubriendo cómo la relación ponderada entre el consumo energético y sus emisiones de CO2 permite, a través de una valoración, mostrar todos los parámetros de relevancia para el mineral de hierro y su posterior transformación en acero. Esa cifra obtenida por el indicador, clasificará la explotación teniendo en cuenta, el tipo de yacimiento, características del mineral (especie mineralógica, tipo de mineral, ley del mineral en hierro, tipo de ganga, características físicas como dureza o tamaño de grano, susceptibilidad magnética, etc.), situación geográfica, infraestructuras, etc. Sin profundizar en la siderurgia, por lo menos sí incluir los principales parámetros (relacionados siempre desde el mineral) que pudieran tener influencia en la disminución de energía requerida (y sus emisiones de CO2 relacionadas): la reducibilidad, el contenido en hierro, y mencionar la influencia del SiO2. Se completa la Tesis con las referencias bibliográficas y documentales, así como con una bibliografía general. ABSTRACT This Thesis is set in a context of natural resources and applied science. The aim of this document is to prove that iron mining is a sustainable activity, so the ancient relationship between men and natural resources will continue. Iron mining is the main subject of this work, so a new sustainable indicator is created in order to evaluate the iron mining from a sustainable point of view. The main tools applied are energy consumption and CO2 emissions. In this research document two relevant issues are involved: energy efficiency and GHGs control; both tools gain significance by the day. This thesis develops along 5 chapters and its bibliography. The first chapter refers to the concept of sustainability, from the beginning to the current definitions and classifications; all this information is focused from the natural resources point of view, especially mining. The contrast of opinion is remarkable, which has been called the “paradox of sustainable mining”; however this chapter concludes that taking into account the less bright side of the mining its activity maintains an important balance between necessities to cover, available resources and environment. The second chapter sets out where this Thesis has been conducted. The frame of this work lies between iron mining, ore processing, the market and the latter steel fabrication (steelmaking). This chapter shows the iron mining key stakeholders, supported with statistical data. The third chapter refers to the whole process definition. From the iron mineral to the rolled steel, all data related with energy consumption and CO2 emissions are considered step by step. Different iron deposits widespread all over the world are analyzed now, as well as the exploited iron mineral in order to apply the lessons learned to create a new sustainability tool. Then, our sustainability studies will consider the influence of this in the energy necessities when iron is transformed. Chapter four is divided in the currently applied sustainability measurement tools, and focusing on energy consumption and CO2 emissions linked to the iron mining process. This tool is essential to calculate the required indicator that reflects the sustainability. Chapter five is the Thesis’ core: it is where the new sustainable indicator is developed, the methodology stated and the final conclusions obtained. Through several examples the indicator application is explained, and a practical and simple sustainable classification will show the ranking of every exploitation. This last chapter develops the sustainable tool and discovers how the weighted relation between energy consumption and CO2 emissions allows understanding all the relevant parameters in the iron mineral transformation. The number calculated will be used to classify the mineral exploitation, taking into account the deposit typology, mineral characteristics (mineralogy, type of mineral, iron percentage, physical properties as hardness or grain size, magnetic susceptibility, etc.), geographic situation, infrastructures, etc. Although steelmaking is not studied in depth, main parameters (from the mineral side) which can operate in the energy decrease (and CO2 emissions in parallel) are referred to: reducibility, iron content and SiO2 influence. The bibliography used is included at the end of this paper.

GreenDisc: a HW/SW energy optimization framework in globally distributed computation

In recent future, wireless sensor networks (WSNs) will experience a broad high-scale deployment (millions of nodes in the national area) with multiple information sources per node, and with very specific requirements for signal processing. In parallel, the broad range deployment of WSNs facilitates the definition and execution of ambitious studies, with a large input data set and high computational complexity. These computation resources, very often heterogeneous and driven on-demand, can only be satisfied by high-performance Data Centers (DCs). The high economical and environmental impact of the energy consumption in DCs requires aggressive energy optimization policies. These policies have been already detected but not successfully proposed. In this context, this paper shows the following on-going research lines and obtained results. In the field of WSNs: energy optimization in the processing nodes from different abstraction levels, including reconfigurable application specific architectures, efficient customization of the memory hierarchy, energy-aware management of the wireless interface, and design automation for signal processing applications. In the field of DCs: energy-optimal workload assignment policies in heterogeneous DCs, resource management policies with energy consciousness, and efficient cooling mechanisms that will cooperate in the minimization of the electricity bill of the DCs that process the data provided by the WSNs.

Leveraging heterogeneity for energy minimization in data centers

Energy consumption in data centers is nowadays a critical objective because of its dramatic environmental and economic impact. Over the last years, several approaches have been proposed to tackle the energy/cost optimization problem, but most of them have failed on providing an analytical model to target both the static and dynamic optimization domains for complex heterogeneous data centers. This paper proposes and solves an optimization problem for the energy-driven configuration of a heterogeneous data center. It also advances in the proposition of a new mechanism for task allocation and distribution of workload. The combination of both approaches outperforms previous published results in the field of energy minimization in heterogeneous data centers and scopes a promising area of research.

GreenDisc: a HW/SW energy optimization framework in globally distributed computation

In recent future, wireless sensor networks ({WSNs}) will experience a broad high-scale deployment (millions of nodes in the national area) with multiple information sources per node, and with very specific requirements for signal processing. In parallel, the broad range deployment of {WSNs} facilitates the definition and execution of ambitious studies, with a large input data set and high computational complexity. These computation resources, very often heterogeneous and driven on-demand, can only be satisfied by high-performance Data Centers ({DCs}). The high economical and environmental impact of the energy consumption in {DCs} requires aggressive energy optimization policies. These policies have been already detected but not successfully proposed. In this context, this paper shows the following on-going research lines and obtained results. In the field of {WSNs}: energy optimization in the processing nodes from different abstraction levels, including reconfigurable application specific architectures, efficient customization of the memory hierarchy, energy-aware management of the wireless interface, and design automation for signal processing applications. In the field of {DCs}: energy-optimal workload assignment policies in heterogeneous {DCs}, resource management policies with energy consciousness, and efficient cooling mechanisms that will cooperate in the minimization of the electricity bill of the DCs that process the data provided by the WSNs.