Wood degradation, and cellulase and ligninase production, by Trametes and other wood-inhabiting basidiomycetes from indigenous forests of Zimbabwe

Nine species of Trametes and five other wood inhabiting basidiomycetes, were collected from the indigenous forests of Zimbabwe and analysed for cellulases, ligninases, extracellular phenolases and wood degrading ability for the first time. Cellulase enzyme activities varied widely among the species. After 15 d growth exo-glucanase activity had increased in the majority of species whilst Biter paper activity showed the opposite trend, being greatly reduced in all species on day 15 compared to day IO. Endo-glucanase activity was relatively uniform at both sampling times. The fungi were more active against water soluble cellulose derivatives than filter paper cellulase. In all the fungi tested, cellulose activity on filter paper was significantly less than endo- and exo-glucanase activities. The highest cellulase activity was expressed by Cerrena meyenii (683 U mg(-1)) Phaeotrametes decipiens, Trametes modesta, and T. pocas also expressed relatively high cellulase activity on all types of cellulose tested. All Trametes species tested positive for extracellular phenol oxidases whilst Fomotopsis spragueii and Irpex stereoides tested negative. Ail but one of the Trametes species in the study were able to degrade two different lignin preparations in tests for lignin degradation. T. menziesii was unable to degrade both lignin preparations although it had tested positive for production of extracellular oxidase. The species in this study degraded hardwood to a greater extent than softwood. Eight of them caused more than 80% dry weight loss of wood blocks during 70 d incubation. Those fungi that expressed high cellulase activity also caused high weight loss on wood.

Indigenous Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungal Assemblages Protect Grassland Host Plants from Pathogens

Plant roots can establish associations with neutral, beneficial and pathogenic groups of soil organisms. Although it has been recognized from the study of individual isolates that these associations are individually important for plant growth, little is known about interactions of whole assemblages of beneficial and pathogenic microorganisms associating with plants. We investigated the influence of an interaction between local arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungal and pathogenic/saprobic microbial assemblages on the growth of two different plant species from semi-arid grasslands in NE Germany (Mallnow near Berlin). In a greenhouse experiment each plant species was grown for six months in either sterile soil or in sterile soil with one of three different treatments: 1) an AM fungal spore fraction isolated from field soil from Mallnow; 2) a soil pathogen/saprobe fraction consisting of a microbial community prepared with field soil from Mallnow and; 3) the combined AM fungal and pathogen/saprobe fractions. While both plant species grew significantly larger in the presence of AM fungi, they responded negatively to the pathogen/saprobe treatment. For both plant species, we found evidence of pathogen protection effects provided by the AM fungal assemblages. These results indicate that interactions between assemblages of beneficial and pathogenic microorganisms can influence the growth of host plants, but that the magnitude of these effects is plant species-specific.

Dietary switching of collembola in grassland soil food webs

Soil food webs are characterised by complex direct and indirect effects among the organisms. Consumption of microorganisms by soil animals is considered as an important factor that contributes to the stability of communities, though cascading effects within the food web can be difficult to detect. In a greenhouse experiment, an addition of a high number the fungal feeding collembola Folsomia quadrioculata was applied to grassland soil food webs in monocultures of three plant species: Plantago lanceolato (forb), Lotus corniculatus (legume) and Holcus lanatus (grass). The abundance of microorganisms, determined as the abundances of phospholipid fatty acids (PLFAs) and the abundances of resident invertebrates, nematodes and collembolans, did not change due to the addition of E quadrioculata. Trophic positions of collembolans were determined by analyses of natural abundances of N-15 stable isotopes. The use of food resources by microorganisms and collembolans was determined by C-13 analysis of microbial PLFAs and solid samples of collembolans. delta C-13 values of the resident collembola Folsomia fimetaria were lower in the presence of E quadrioculata than in the control food webs indicating a use of more depleted C-13 food resources by E fimetaria. The delta N-15 values of E fimetaria did not change at the addition of E quadrioculata thus no change of trophic levels was detected. The switch of E fimetaria to a different food resource could be due to indirect interactions in the food web as the two collembolan species were positioned on different trophic positions, according to different delta N-15 values. (c) 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Protected area networks and savannah bird biodiversity in the face of climate change and land degradation

The extent to which climate change might diminish the efficacy of protected areas is one of the most pressing conservation questions. Many projections suggest that climate-driven species distribution shifts will leave protected areas impoverished and species inadequately protected while other evidence suggests that intact ecosystems within protected areas will be resilient to change. Here, we tackle this problem empirically. We show how recent changes in distribution of 139 Tanzanian savannah bird species are linked to climate change, protected area status and land degradation. We provide the first evidence of climate-driven range shifts for an African bird community. Our results suggest that the continued maintenance of existing protected areas is an appropriate conservation response to the challenge of climate and environmental change.

CP retrodirective antenna array performance degradation at large elevation angles

At large elevation angles away from boresight the performance of planar phased antenna arrays for circularly polarized, CP, signals suffers from significant gain reduction, worsening of the circular polarization purity, increased pointing error and unwanted dominantly specular lobe radiation. The mechanisms governing this performance deterioration and suggestions for possible rectification are for the first time elaborated in this paper. The points raised in this paper are important when CP retrodirective arrays are to be deployed in self-tracking satellite and terrestrial communication systems mounted on mobile platforms.

Activation of protease calpain by oxidized and glycated LDL increases the degradation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase

Oxidation and glycation of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) promote vascular injury in diabetes; however, the mechanisms underlying this effect remain poorly defined. The present study was conducted to determine the effects of 'heavily oxidized' glycated LDL (HOG-LDL) on endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) function. Exposure of bovine aortic endothelial cells with HOG-LDL reduced eNOS protein levels in a concentration- and time-dependent manner, without altering eNOS mRNA levels. Reduced eNOS protein levels were accompanied by an increase in intracellular Ca(2+), augmented production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and induction of Ca(2+)-dependent calpain activity. Neither eNOS reduction nor any of these other effects were observed in cells exposed to native LDL. Reduction of intracellular Ca(2+) levels abolished eNOS reduction by HOG-LDL, as did pharmacological or genetic through calcium channel blockers or calcium chelator BAPTA or inhibition of NAD(P)H oxidase (with apocynin) or inhibition of calpain (calpain 1-specific siRNA). Consistent with these results, HOG-LDL impaired acetylcholine-induced endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation of isolated mouse aortas, and pharmacological inhibition of calpain prevented this effect. HOG-LDL may impair endothelial function by inducing calpain-mediated eNOS degradation in a ROS- and Ca(2+)-dependent manner.

Degradable Polymer Networks and Star Polymers Based on Mixtures of Two Cleavable Dimethacrylate Crosslinkers: Synthesis, Characterization, and Degradation

Mixtures of two cleavable dimethacrylate crosslinkers, the hydrolyzable di(methacryloyloxy-1-ethoxy)methane (DMOEM) and the thermolyzable 1,1-ethylene-diol dimethacrylate (EDDMA), were used for the preparation of neat crosslinker polymer networks, randomly crosslinked polymer networks of methyl methacrylate (MMA), and star polymers of MMA, using group transfer polymerization in tetrahydrofuran (THF). All star polymers and randomly crosslinked polymer networks containing mixtures of the hydrolyzable DMOEM and the thermolyzable EDDMA crosslinkers gave THF-soluble final products when subjected to sequential thermolysis and hydrolysis, in this order. When applying sequential hydrolysis and thermolysis, only the star polymers with an EDDMA crosslinker content equal to or higher than 50% gave THF-soluble final products.

Squirrelpox Virus: Assessing Prevalence, Transmission and Environmental Degradation

Red squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris) declined in Great Britain and Ireland during the last century, due to habitat loss and the introduction of grey squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis), which competitively exclude the red squirrel and act as a reservoir for squirrelpox virus (SQPV). The disease is generally fatal to red squirrels and their ecological replacement by grey squirrels is up to 25 times faster where the virus is present. We aimed to determine: (1) the seropositivity and prevalence of SQPV DNA in the invasive and native species at a regional scale; (2) possible SQPV transmission routes; and, (3) virus degradation rates under differing environmental conditions. Grey (n = 208) and red (n = 40) squirrel blood and tissues were sampled. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) techniques established seropositivity and viral DNA presence, respectively. Overall 8% of squirrels sampled (both species combined) had evidence of SQPV DNA in their tissues and 22% were in possession of antibodies. SQPV prevalence in sampled red squirrels was 2.5%. Viral loads were typically low in grey squirrels by comparison to red squirrels. There was a trend for a greater number of positive samples in spring and summer than in winter. Possible transmission routes were identified through the presence of viral DNA in faeces (red squirrels only), urine and ectoparasites (both species). Virus degradation analyses suggested that, after 30 days of exposure to six combinations of environments, there were more intact virus particles in scabs kept in warm (25°C) and dry conditions than in cooler (5 and 15°C) or wet conditions. We conclude that SQPV is present at low prevalence in invasive grey squirrel populations with a lower prevalence in native red squirrels. Virus transmission could occur through urine especially during warm dry summer conditions but, more notably, via ectoparasites, which are shared by both species.

Determinants of root-associated fungal communities within Asteraceae in a semi-arid grassland

Summary

1.While plant–fungal interactions are important determinants of plant community assembly and ecosystem functioning, the processes underlying fungal community composition are poorly understood.
2.Here, we studied for the first time the root-associated eumycotan communities in a set of co-occurring plant species of varying relatedness in a species-rich, semi-arid grassland in Germany. The study system provides an opportunity to evaluate the importance of host plants and gradients in soil type and landscape structure as drivers of fungal community structure on a relevant spatial scale. We used 454 pyrosequencing of the fungal internal transcribed spacer region to analyse root-associated eumycotan communities of 25 species within the Asteraceae, which were sampled at different locations within a soil type gradient. We partitioned the variance accounted for by three predictors (host plant phylogeny, spatial distribution and soil type) to quantify their relative roles in determining fungal community composition and used null model analyses to determine whether community composition was influenced by biotic interactions among the fungi.
3.We found a high fungal diversity (156 816 sequences clustered in 1100 operational taxonomic units (OTUs)). Most OTUs belonged to the phylum Ascomycota (35.8%); the most abundant phylotype best-matched Phialophora mustea. Basidiomycota were represented by 18.3%, with Sebacina as most abundant genus. The three predictors explained 30% of variation in the community structure of root-associated fungi, with host plant phylogeny being the most important variance component. Null model analysis suggested that many fungal taxa co-occurred less often than expected by chance, which demonstrates spatial segregation and indicates that negative interactions may prevail in the assembly of fungal communities.
4.Synthesis. The results show that the phylogenetic relationship of host plants is the most important predictor of root-associated fungal community assembly, indicating that fungal colonization of host plants might be facilitated by certain plant traits that may be shared among closely related plant species.

The Host Defence Peptide LL-37 is Susceptible to Proteolytic Degradation by Wound Fluid Isolated from Foot Ulcers of Diabetic Patients

The pleiotropic effects of host defence peptides (HDPs), including the ability to kill microorganisms, enhance re-epithelialisation and increase angiogenesis, indicates a role for these important peptides as potential therapeutic agents in the treatment of chronic, non-healing wounds. However, the maintenance of peptide integrity, through resistance to degradation by the array of proteinases present at the wound site, is a prerequisite for clinical success. In this study we explored the degradation of exogenous LL-37, one such HDP, by wound fluid from diabetic foot ulcers to determine its susceptibility to proteolytic degradation. Our results suggest that LL-37 is unstable in the diabetic foot ulcer microenvironment. Following overnight treatment with wound fluid, LL-37 was completely degraded. Analysis of cleavage sites suggested potential involvement of both host- and bacterial-derived proteinases. The degradation products were shown to retain some antibacterial activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa but were inactive against Staphylococcus aureus. In conclusion, our data suggest that stabilising selected peptide bonds within the sequence of LL-37 would represent an avenue for future research prior to clinical studies to address its potential as an exogenously-applied therapeutic in diabetic wounds.