Multi-objective optimisation of horizontal axis wind turbine structure and energy production using aerofoil and blade properties as design variables

The design of wind turbine blades is a true multi-objective engineering task. The aerodynamic effectiveness of the turbine needs to be balanced with the system loads introduced by the rotor. Moreover the problem is not dependent on a single geometric property, but besides other parameters on a combination of aerofoil family and various blade functions. The aim of this paper is therefore to present a tool which can help designers to get a deeper insight into the complexity of the design space and to find a blade design which is likely to have a low cost of energy. For the research we use a Computational Blade Optimisation and Load Deflation Tool (CoBOLDT) to investigate the three extreme point designs obtained from a multi-objective optimisation of turbine thrust, annual energy production as well as mass for a horizontal axis wind turbine blade. The optimisation algorithm utilised is based on Multi-Objective Tabu Search which constitutes the core of CoBOLDT. The methodology is capable to parametrise the spanning aerofoils with two-dimensional Free Form Deformation and blade functions with two tangentially connected cubic splines. After geometry generation we use a panel code to create aerofoil polars and a stationary Blade Element Momentum code to evaluate turbine performance. Finally, the obtained loads are fed into a structural layout module to estimate the mass and stiffness of the current blade by means of a fully stressed design. For the presented test case we chose post optimisation analysis with parallel coordinates to reveal geometrical features of the extreme point designs and to select a compromise design from the Pareto set. The research revealed that a blade with a feasible laminate layout can be obtained, that can increase the energy capture and lower steady state systems loads. The reduced aerofoil camber and an increased L/. D-ratio could be identified as the main drivers. This statement could not be made with other tools of the research community before. © 2013 Elsevier Ltd.

Assessment effects of cage culture on nitrogen and phosphorus dynamics in relation to fallowing in a shallow lake in China

Nitrogen and phosphorus dynamics in relation to fallowing in a fish cage farm was investigated in a shallow lake in China. Four sampling sites were set: beneath the cages, at the cage sides, and 50 and 100 m east of the cage farm. Total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) in lake water and sediment were analyzed during a 2-year rearing cycle. The cage culture had a fish yield of 16.3-39.2 tonnes in the study period. Based on the mass balance equation, 1533-3084 kg TN and 339-697 kg TP were contributed to the lake environment. Nitrogen and phosphorous concentrations showed greater increase in the first culture period than in the second rearing cycle. No obvious changes were found at the sampling sites 50 and 100 m east of the cages during the study periods. Main impacts were found close to the cages (beneath the cages and at the cage side); the sampling points at the cage side showed relatively high TN and TP sedimentation. After 3 months of fallowing, water TN and TP decreased significantly but the sediment TN and TP contents remained high. Therefore, recovery seems to happen during fallowing but attention should be paid to whether the culture continues to operate in the future.

Innovation, the diesel engine and vehicle markets: Evidence from OECD engine patents

This paper uses a patent data set to identify factors fostering innovation of diesel engines between 1974 and 2010 in the OECD region. The propensity of engine producers to innovate grew by 1.9 standard deviations after the expansion of the car market, by 0.7 standard deviations following a shift in the EU fuel economy standard, and by 0.23 standard deviations. The propensity to develop emissions control techniques was positively influenced by pollution control laws introduced in Japan, in the US, and in the EU, but not with the expansion of the car market. Furthermore, a decline in loan rates stimulated the propensity to develop emissions control techniques, which were simultaneously crowded out by increases in publicly-funded transport research and development. Innovation activities in engine efficiency are explained by market size, loan rates and by (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development) diesel prices, inclusive of taxes. Price effects on innovation, outweigh that of the US corporate average fuel economy standards. Innovation is also positively influenced by past transport research and development. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd.

Cost-effectiveness of alternative powertrains for reduced energy use and CO2 emissions in passenger vehicles

This work analysed the cost-effectiveness of avoiding carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions using advanced internal combustion engines, hybrids, plug-in hybrids, fuel cell vehicles and electric vehicles across the nine UK passenger vehicles segments. Across all vehicle types and powertrain groups, minimum installed motive power was dependent most on the time to accelerate from zero to 96.6km/h (60mph). Hybridising the powertrain reduced the difference in energy use between vehicles with slow (t z - 60 > 8 s) and fast acceleration (t z - 60 < 8 s) times. The cost premium associated with advanced powertrains was dependent most on the powertrain chosen, rather than the performance required. Improving non-powertrain components reduced vehicle road load and allowed total motive capacity to decrease by 17%, energy use by 11%, manufacturing cost premiums by 13% and CO2 emissions abatement costs by 15%. All vehicles with advanced internal combustion engines, most hybrid and plug-in hybrid powertrains reduced net CO2 emissions and had lower lifetime operating costs than the respective segment reference vehicle. Most powertrains using fuel cells and all electric vehicles had positive CO2 emissions abatement costs. However, only vehicles using advanced internal combustion engines and parallel hybrid vehicles may be attractive to consumers by the fuel savings offsetting increases in vehicle cost within two years. This work demonstrates that fuel savings are possible relative to today's fleet, but indicates that the most cost-effective way of reducing fuel consumption and CO2 emissions is by advanced combustion technologies and hybridisation with a parallel topology. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd.

Realization of low threshold of InGaAs/InAlAs quantum cascade laser

By optimizing the molecule beam epitaxy growth condition, the quality of quantum cascade (QC) material has greatly been improved. The spectrum of double x-ray diffraction indicates that the interface between the constituent layers is very smooth, the lattice mismatch between the epilayer and the substrate is less than 0.1%, and the periodicity fluctuation of the active region is not more than 4.2%. The QC laser with the emission wavelength of about 5.1 mum is operated at the threshold of 0.73 kA/cm(2) at liquid nitrogen temperature with the repetition rate of 10kHz and at a duty cycle of 1%. Meanwhile, the performance of the laser can be improved with suitable post process techniques such as the metallic ohmic contact technology.

水土保持林土壤改良效应及其效益评价

土壤侵蚀是土地退化的一种重要表现形式，是当今世界重大环境问题之一。水土保持林正是针对这一环境问题而采取的一项生态林业工程措施，对于防止土壤侵蚀，控制水土流失具有极其重要的作用。论文以大量的文献为基础，对土壤侵蚀的定义、成因、规律和研究进展，以及水土保持林的功能进行了分析研究，发现有关土壤侵蚀规律和水土保持林水文效应方面的研究较多，可是关于土壤侵蚀内在机制和水土保持林土壤改良效应方面的研究较少。而事实上，水土保持林防止土壤侵蚀和改善区域水文状况的作用，与其改良土壤的作用有着密切的关系。水土保持林对生态环境的改善，正是以改良土壤的作用为前提的基础的。通常认为，森林改良土壤就是改善土壤的理化性状，提高土壤的肥力水平。论文通过对国内外有关文献的分析和朝阳地区的区域性考察，首次提出水土保持林作为保持水土、防止土壤侵蚀的特有林种，它的土壤改良效应不仅体现在土壤肥力水平的提高，更重要地表现为土壤抗蚀性能和抗冲性能的增强。这恰恰体现了水土保持林保持水土、防止土壤侵蚀的功能所在。因此对水土保持林土壤改良效应内容的拓展，有利于进一步认识土壤改良效应与水土保持林功能之间的关系，为高效、多功能水土保持林体系的建设提供了理论依据。水土保持林土壤改良效应是通过林冠截留、枯枝落叶层的作用以及根系的活动来实现的。论文通过对不同类型水土保持林林冠层的厚度和面积、枯枝落叶层的现存量和分解状况、以及根系分布特点的分析，阐明针阔叶混交林与针叶纯林相比，其水土保持性能更有利于土壤改良。随着林龄的增长，林分的水土保持性能增强，土壤改良效果更好。论文还着重对水土保持林土壤改良效应进行了研究，明确指出水土保持林土壤改效应包括土壤肥力提高、土壤抗蚀性能增强和土壤抗冲性能增强三个方面的内容。并根据其各自的性质和特点，分别选择土壤酶活性、土壤有机质含量、有机－无机复合体和微团聚体等作为土壤肥力的评价指标：水稳性团聚体含量及其平均重量直径、团聚度、分散率等作为土壤抗蚀性能的指标：土壤硬度、渗透系数等作为土壤抗冲性能的指标。用这些指标对不同类型水土保持林土壤肥力、土壤抗蚀性能和抗冲性能进行评价，得出的结论是一致的，即：针阔叶混交林土壤肥力、土壤抗蚀性能和抗冲性能均高于针叶纯林：同一树种林龄越大的林分，土壤肥力越高，土壤抗蚀、抗冲性能越强。例如，以土壤中脲酶、磷酸酶和蔗糖酶活性对土壤肥力进行评价时得出：与纯林相比，混交林土壤中脲酶活性提高了6.4 ～ 142.36%，磷酸酶活性提高了20.55 ～ 99.04%，蔗糖酶活性提高了4.23 ～ 198.96%。以水稳性团聚体含量对土壤抗蚀性能进行评价时，混交林土壤中水稳性团粒含量比纯林增加了1.71 ～ 38.53%，48年生和28年生油松林比15年生油松林增加了89.94 ～ 149.27%，等等。因此论文指出，与针叶纯林相比，针阔叶混交林改良土壤的效果更好。林龄越大的林分，土壤改良效果越佳。森林效益评价是目前林业研究的热点，也是难点。论文在掌握足够文献的基础上，对水土保持林综合效益评价做了较为系统、全面的分析和论述，提出了一套比较完整的效益评价方法和步骤。水土保持林土壤改良效益是其综合效益的一个非常重要的方面，也是水土保持林最直接、最基本的一项效益。论文在水土保持林土壤改良效应研究的基础上，明确提出了效益评价的方法和思路，这在目前还是不多见的。在所取和参与专家意见的基础上，筛选出了水土保持林土壤改良效益的评价指标，建立了由指标维、时间维和地类维构成的三维效益评价指标体系，确定了由总目标层、准则层和指标层构成的指标维的结构图，指出总目标层为水土保持林土壤改良效益评价综合指标：准则层包括土壤肥力、土壤抗蚀性能和土壤抗冲性能；指标层有土壤酶活性、土壤有机质含量、水稳性团粒平均重理直径、分散率、团聚度、土壤硬度、土壤渗透系数和pH值等。进而用层次分析法确定了指标体系中各项指标的权重，用于的评价计算。论文按照效益结构图中的层次，分步求算得到了水土保持林土壤改良效益评价综合指数。并尝试用消除立地因子影响的方法，对效益评价综合指数进行了校正。文中还分别以林地枯落物生物量(x_1)、林分平均胸径（地径）生长量(x_2)、林分平均树高生长量(x_3)以及平均胸径（地径）平方和树高乘积(x_4)为自变量，以效益评价综合指数为因变量进行模拟运算，得到了水土保持林土壤改良效益的评价模型，模拟结果较好的模型有：y = 0.7 + 0.2208x_1 - 0.0053x_1~2 R~2 = 0.5396 y = 0.5815x_2~(0.4885) R~2 = 0.4827 y = 0.8529 + 0.1869x_3 - 0.004x_3~2 R~2 = 0.3391 y = 2.7695x_4~(0.1533) R~2 = 0.4410生产实践中，可根据实际情况选择适当的模型加以应用。论文根据计算得到的效益评价综合指数的相对值，将朝阳地区水土保持林土壤改良效益划分为四个等级，即相对值>3为好；2.5 ～ 3为较好；2 ～ 2.5为中等；<2为较差。最后，还通过实例说明了效益评估模型和评价标准在当地生产实践中的应用。