Genetic variation in the European hake, Merluccius merluccius. Description of protein loci and genetic divergence between Atlantic and Mediterranean populations = Anàlisi de la variabilitat genètica en el lluç europeu, Merluccius merluccius. Descripció dels loci electroforètics i divergència genètica entre les poblacions atlàntica i mediterrània

We examined the genetic population structure of the european hake (Merluccius merluccius) using electrophoretically detectable population markers in 35 protein loci. Samples were collected from 7 locations in the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea. Six loci were polymorphic using the 0.05 criterion of polymorphism. Sample heterozigosities ranged from 0.052 to 0.072 and averaged 0.0625. In this study, significant allele frequency differences were detected between Atlantic and Mediterranean populations in three polymorphic loci: GAPDH-1*, GPI-2* and SOD-1*. Two major genetic groups were considered: a North-Atlantic stock and the Mediterranean stock. The Nei genetic distance, D, (based on 33 loci) between samples from these two groups ranged from 0.002 to 0.006. Genetic differenciation between these areas appears to reflect the barrier effect of Strait of Gibraltar. On average over loci, 96.92 % of the total gene diversity was contained within samples, 0.23 % expressed differences among locations within areas, and 2.64 % differences between regions. A review of morphological variation together with the genetic data presented here suggest that the populations of hake from these areas are subdivided into two different stocks: the North-Atlantic stock and the Mediterranean stock. The most conservative approach to the management of these stocks is to consider the Atlantic and Mediterranean stocks independently from oneanother

Decoupled evolution of floral traits and climatic preferences in a clade of Neotropical Gesneriaceae.

BACKGROUND: Major factors influencing the phenotypic diversity of a lineage can be recognized by characterizing the extent and mode of trait evolution between related species. Here, we compared the evolutionary dynamics of traits associated with floral morphology and climatic preferences in a clade composed of the genera Codonanthopsis, Codonanthe and Nematanthus (Gesneriaceae). To test the mode and specific components that lead to phenotypic diversity in this group, we performed a Bayesian phylogenetic analysis of combined nuclear and plastid DNA sequences and modeled the evolution of quantitative traits related to flower shape and size and to climatic preferences. We propose an alternative approach to display graphically the complex dynamics of trait evolution along a phylogenetic tree using a wide range of evolutionary scenarios. RESULTS: Our results demonstrated heterogeneous trait evolution. Floral shapes displaced into separate regimes selected by the different pollinator types (hummingbirds versus insects), while floral size underwent a clade-specific evolution. Rates of evolution were higher for the clade that is hummingbird pollinated and experienced flower resupination, compared with species pollinated by bees, suggesting a relevant role of plant-pollinator interactions in lowland rainforest. The evolution of temperature preferences is best explained by a model with distinct selective regimes between the Brazilian Atlantic Forest and the other biomes, whereas differentiation along the precipitation axis was characterized by higher rates, compared with temperature, and no regime or clade-specific patterns. CONCLUSIONS: Our study shows different selective regimes and clade-specific patterns in the evolution of morphological and climatic components during the diversification of Neotropical species. Our new graphical visualization tool allows the representation of trait trajectories under parameter-rich models, thus contributing to a better understanding of complex evolutionary dynamics.

Stable isotopes provide insight into population structure and segregation in eastern North Atlantic sperm whales

In pelagic species inhabiting large oceans, genetic differentiation tends to be mild and populations devoid of structure. However, large cetaceans have provided many examples of structuring. Here we investigate whether the sperm whale, a pelagic species with large population sizes and reputedly highly mobile, shows indication of structuring in the eastern North Atlantic, an ocean basin in which a single population is believed to occur. To do so, we examined stable isotope values in sequential growth layer groups of teeth from individuals sampled in Denmark and NW Spain. In each layer we measured oxygen- isotope ratios (δ18O) in the inorganic component (hydroxyapatite), and nitrogen and carbon isotope ratios (δ15N: δ13C) in the organic component (primarily collagenous). We found significant differences between Denmark and NW Spain in δ15N and δ18O values in the layer deposited at age 3, considered to be the one best representing the baseline of the breeding ground, in δ15N, δ13C and δ18O values in the period up to age 20, and in the ontogenetic variation of δ15N and δ18O values. These differences evidence that diet composition, use of habitat and/or migratory destinations are dissimilar between whales from the two regions and suggest that the North Atlantic population of sperm whales is more structured than traditionally accepted.

Divergence with gene flow and fine-scale phylogeographical structure in the wedge-billed woodcreeper, Glyphorynchus spirurus, a Neotropical rainforest bird.

Determining the relative roles of vicariance and selection in restricting gene flow between populations is of central importance to the evolutionary process of population divergence and speciation. Here we use molecular and morphological data to contrast the effect of isolation (by mountains and geographical distance) with that of ecological factors (altitudinal gradients) in promoting differentiation in the wedge-billed woodcreeper, Glyphorynchus spirurus, a tropical forest bird, in Ecuador. Tarsus length and beak size increased relative to body size with altitude on both sides of the Andes, and were correlated with the amount of moss on tree trunks, suggesting the role of selection in driving adaptive divergence. In contrast, molecular data revealed a considerable degree of admixture along these altitudinal gradients, suggesting that adaptive divergence in morphological traits has occurred in the presence of gene flow. As suggested by mitochondrial DNA sequence data, the Andes act as a barrier to gene flow between ancient subspecific lineages. Genome-wide amplified fragment length polymorphism markers reflected more recent patterns of gene flow and revealed fine-scale patterns of population differentiation that were not detectable with mitochondrial DNA, including the differentiation of isolated coastal populations west of the Andes. Our results support the predominant role of geographical isolation in driving genetic differentiation in G. spirurus, yet suggest the role of selection in driving parallel morphological divergence along ecological gradients.

Hydrological evidence for a North Atlantic oscillation during the Little Ice Age outside its range observed since 1850.

An annual-resolved precipitation reconstruction for the last 800 yr in Southern Spain has been performed using stable carbon isotope (δ13C) of Pinus nigra tree rings. The reconstruction exhibits high- to low-frequency variability and distinguishes a Little Ice Age (LIA, AD 13501850) characterized by lower averaged rainfall than both in the transition from the Medieval Climate Anomaly to the LIA and in the 20th century. The driest conditions are recorded during the Maunder solar Minimum (mid 17thearly 18th centuries), in good agreement with the Spanish documentary archive. Similar linkage between solar activity (maximum/minimum) and precipitation (increase/decrease) is observed throughout the entire LIA. Additionally, the relationship between the hydrological pattern in the Iberian Peninsula and Morocco during the LIA suggests different spatial distribution of precipitation in the south-eastern sector of the North Atlantic region such as it is known currently. Whereas in the instrumental record the precipitation evolves similarly in both regions and opposite to the North Atlantic oscillation (NAO) index, the coldest periods of the LIA shows a contrasting pattern with drier conditions in the South of Spain and wetter in Northern Africa. We suggest an extreme negative NAO conditions, accompanied by a southward excursion of the winter rainfall band beyond that observed in the last century, can explain this contrast. The sustained NAO conditions could have been triggered by solar minima and higher volcanic activity during the LIA.

Parallel declines in species and genetic diversity driven by anthropogenic disturbance: a multispecies approach in a French Atlantic dune system.

Numerous studies assess the correlation between genetic and species diversities, but the processes underlying the observed patterns have only received limited attention. For instance, varying levels of habitat disturbance across a region may locally reduce both diversities due to extinctions, and increased genetic drift during population bottlenecks and founder events. We investigated the regional distribution of genetic and species diversities of a coastal sand dune plant community along 240 kilometers of coastline with the aim to test for a correlation between the two diversity levels. We further quantify and tease apart the respective contributions of natural and anthropogenic disturbance factors to the observed patterns. We detected significant positive correlation between both variables. We further revealed a negative impact of urbanization: Sites with a high amount of recreational infrastructure within 10 km coastline had significantly lowered genetic and species diversities. On the other hand, a measure of natural habitat disturbance had no effect. This study shows that parallel variation of genetic and species diversities across a region can be traced back to human landscape alteration, provides arguments for a more resolute dune protection, and may help to design priority conservation areas.

Feeding ecology and movements of the Barolo shearwater Puffinus baroli baroli in the Azores, NE Atlantic

Trophic ecology and movements are critical issues for understanding the role of marine predators in food webs and for facing the challenges of their conservation. Seabird foraging ecology has been increasingly studied, but small elusive species, such as those forming the"little shearwater" complex, remain poorly known. We present the first study on the movements and feeding ecology of the Barolo shearwater Puffinus baroli baroli in a colony from the Azores archipelago (NE Atlantic), combining global location-sensing units, stable isotope analyses of feathers (δ13C and δ15N), stomach flushings and data from maximum depth gauges. During the chick-rearing period, parents visited their nests most nights, foraged mainly south of the colony and fed at lower trophic levels than during the non-breeding period. Squid was the most diverse prey (6 families and at least 10 different taxa), but species composition varied considerably between years. Two squid families, Onychoteuthidae and Argonautidae, and the fish family Phycidae accounted for 82.3% of ingested prey by number. On average, maximum dive depths per foraging trip reached 14.8 m (range: 7.9 to 23.1 m). After the breeding period, birds dispersed offshore in all directions and up to 2500 km from the breeding colony, and fed at higher trophic levels. Overall, our results indicate that the Barolo shearwater is a non-migratory shearwater feeding at the lowest trophic level among Macaronesian seabirds, showing both diurnal and nocturnal activity and feeding deeper in the water column, principally on small schooling squid and fish. These traits contrast with those of 3 other Azorean Procellariiformes (Cory"s shearwater Calonectris diomedea, the Madeiran storm-petrel Oceanodroma castro and Monteiro"s storm-petrel O. monteiroi), indicating ecological segregation within the Azorean seabird community.

Trophic versus geographic structure in stable isotope signatures of pelagic seabirds breeding in the northeast Atlantic

Feeding ecology and geographic location are 2 major factors influencing animal stable isotope signatures, but their relative contributions are poorly understood, which limits the usefulness of stable isotope analysis in the study of animal ecology. To improve our knowledge of the main sources of isotopic variability at sea, we determined δ15N and δ13C signatures in the first primary feather of adult birds from 11 Procellariiform species (n = 609) across 16 northeast Atlantic localities, from Cape Verde (20°N) to Iceland (60°N). Post-breeding areas (where the studied feather is thought to be grown) were determined using light-level geolocation for 6 of the 11 species. Isotopic variability was geographically unstructured within the mid-northeast Atlantic (Macaronesian archipelagos), but trophically structured according to species and regardless of the breeding location, presumably as a result of trophic segregation among species. Indeed, the interspecific isotopic overlap resulting from combining δ15N and δ13C signatures of seabirds was low, which suggests that most species exploited exclusive trophic resources consistently across their geographic range. Species breeding in north temperate regions (Iceland, Scotland and Northern Ireland) showed enriched δ15N compared to the same or similar species breeding in tropical and subtropical regions, suggesting some differences in baseline levels between these regions. The present study illustrates a noticeable trophic segregation of northeast Atlantic Procellariiformes. Our results show that the isotopic approach has limited applicability for the study of animal movements in the northeast Atlantic at a regional scale, but is potentially useful for the study of long-distance migrations between large marine systems

The summer North Atlantic Oscillation in CMIP3 models and related uncertainties in projected summer drying in Europe

This paper discusses uncertainties in model projections of summer drying in the Euro-Mediterranean region related to errors and uncertainties in the simulation of the summer NAO (SNAO). The SNAO is the leading mode of summer SLP variability in the North Atlantic/European sector and modulates precipitation not only in the vicinity of the SLP dipole (northwest Europe) but also in the Mediterranean region. An analysis of CMIP3 models is conducted to determine the extent to which models reproduce the signature of the SNAO and its impact on precipitation and to assess the role of the SNAO in the projected precipitation reductions. Most models correctly simulate the spatial pattern of the SNAO and the dry anomalies in northwest Europe that accompany the positive phase. The models also capture the concurrent wet conditions in the Mediterranean, but the amplitude of this signal is too weak, especially in the east. This error is related to the poor simulation of the upper-level circulation response to a positive SNAO, namely the observed trough over the Balkans that creates potential instability and favors precipitation. The SNAO is generally projected to trend upwards in CMIP3 models, leading to a consistent signal of precipitation reduction in NW Europe, but the intensity of the trend varies greatly across models, resulting in large uncertainties in the magnitude of the projected drying. In the Mediterranean, because the simulated influence of the SNAO is too weak, no precipitation increase occurs even in the presence of a strong SNAO trend, reducing confidence in these projections.

Essential oils from leaves of cryptocarya spp from the atlantic rain forest

The essential oils from leaves of four Cryptocarya spp endemic in the Brazilian Atlantic rain forest were obtained by hydrodistillation and shown by GC-MS analysis to contain mono and sesquiterpenes. The major components of the oil of Cryptocarya moschata were linalool (34.3%), a-terpinene (17.0%), g-terpinene (10.4%), 1,8-cineole (5.8%) and trans-ocimene (4.8%), whilst those of C. botelhensis were a-pinene (22.7%), b-pinene (9.2%), trans-verbenol (8.4%), trans-pinocarveol (5.5%) and myrtenal (5.4%). The principal compounds of C. mandioccana oil were b-caryophyllene (13.8%), spathulenol (10.2%), caryophyllene oxide (7.8%), d-cadinene (6.9%) and bicyclogermacrene (6.4%), whilst those of C. saligna were germacrene D (15.5%), bicyclogermacrene (13.8%), spathulenol (11.8%) and germacrene B (5.7%).

AMAZON RAINFOREST COSMETICS: CHEMICAL APPROACH FOR QUALITY CONTROL

The market for natural cosmetics featuring ingredients derived from Amazon natural resources is growing worldwide. However, there is neither enough scientific basis nor quality control of these ingredients. This paper is an account of the chemical constituents and their biological activities of fourteen Amazonian species used in cosmetic industry, including açaí (Euterpe oleracea), andiroba (Carapa guianensis), bacuri (Platonia insignis), Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa), buriti (Mauritia vinifera or M. flexuosa), cumaru (Dipteryx odorata), cupuaçu (Theobroma grandiflorum), guarana (Paullinia cupana), mulateiro (Calycophyllum spruceanum), murumuru (Astrocaryum murumuru), patawa (Oenocarpus bataua or Jessenia bataua), pracaxi (Pentaclethra macroloba), rosewood (Aniba rosaeodora), and ucuuba (Virola sebifera). Based on the reviewed articles, we selected chemical markers for the quality control purpose and evaluated analytical methods. Even though chromatographic and spectroscopic methods are major analytical techniques in the studies of these species, molecular approaches will also be important as used in food and medicine traceability. Only a little phytochemical study is available about most of the Amazonian species and some species such as açaí and andiroba have many reports on chemical constituents, but studies on biological activities of isolated compounds and sampling with geographical variation are limited.

Influence of pioneer-species combinations on restoration of disturbed ecosystems in the Atlantic Forest, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

The analysis of species composition and its effects on sustainability restoration processes in the Atlantic Forest with poor environmental attributes is important to improve rehabilitation techniques for disturbed ecosystems. Reforestation projects were used as Biological Measures (BM) of rehabilitation, where treatments differ in the composition of exotic species, utilized as anthropic pioneers: BM1 - 82% (73% Mimosa caesalpiniifolia Benth, 9% Eucalyptus citriodora Hook.); BM2 - 91% (9%, 82%); and BM3 - 25% (15%, 10%). The monitoring of spontaneous regeneration was evaluated in three 12-year-old reforestation sites between thr rainy season of 2004 and 2005, and compared with an approximately 100-year-old native forest fragment and a grassland: ecosystems with inertial tendency toward recuperation and degradation, respectively. It was detected that exotic species used as anthropic pioneers strongly influenced regeneration: BM1 (75%), BM2 (85%), BM3 (55%), Forest (0%) and Grassland (50%). The highest similarity of species with forest regeneration (5%) was found for treatment BM3.

Natural regeneration in abandoned fields following intensive agricultural land use in an Atlantic Forest Island, Brazil

The time required to regrowth a forest in degraded areas depends on how the forest is removed and on the type of land use following removal. Natural regeneration was studied in abandoned old fields after intensive agricultural land use in areas originally covered by Brazilian Atlantic Forests of the Anchieta Island, Brazil in order to understand how plant communities reassemble following human disturbances as well as to determine suitable strategies of forest restoration. The fields were classified into three vegetation types according to the dominant plant species in: 1) Miconia albicans (Sw.) Triana (Melastomataceae) fields, 2) Dicranopteris flexuosa (Schrader) Underw. (Gleicheniaceae) thickets, and 3) Gleichenella pectinata (Willd.) Ching. (Gleicheniaceae) thickets. Both composition and structure of natural regeneration were compared among the three dominant vegetation types by establishing randomly three plots of 1 x 3 m in five sites of the island. A gradient in composition and abundance of species in natural regeneration could be observed along vegetation types from Dicranopteris fern thickets to Miconia fields. The gradient did not accurately follow the pattern of spatial distribution of the three dominant vegetation types in the island regarding their proximity of the remnant forests. A complex association of biotic and abiotic factors seems to be affecting the seedling recruitment and establishment in the study plots. The lowest plant regeneration found in Dicranopteris and Gleichenella thickets suggests that the ferns inhibit the recruitment of woody and herbaceous species. Otherwise, we could not distinguish different patterns of tree regeneration among the three vegetation types. Our results showed that forest recovery following severe anthropogenic disturbances is not direct, predictable or even achievable on its own. Appropriated actions and methods such as fern removal, planting ground covers, and enrichment planting with tree species were suggested in order to restore the natural forest regeneration process in the abandoned old fields.

Landscape structure in the northern coast of Paraná state, a hotspot for the brazilian Atlantic Forest conservation

The "Serra do Mar" region comprises the largest remnant of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. The coast of the Paraná State is part of the core area of the "Serra do Mar" corridor and where actions for biodiversity conservation must be planned. In this study we aimed at characterizing the landscape structure in the APA-Guaraqueçaba, the largest protected area in this region, in order to assist environmental policies of this region. Based on a supervised classification of a mosaic of LANDSAT-5-TM satellite images (from March 2009), we developed a map (1:75,000 scale) with seven classes of land use and land cover and analyzed the relative quantities of forests and modified areas in slopes and lowlands. The APA-Guaraqueçaba is comprised mainly by the Dense Ombrophilous Forest (68.6% of total area) and secondary forests (9.1%), indicating a forested landscape matrix; anthropogenic and bare soil areas (0.8%) and the Pasture/Grasslands class (4.2%) were less representative. Slopes were less fragmented and more preserved (96.3% of Dense Ombrophilous Forest and secondary forest) than lowlands (71.3%), suggesting that restoration initiatives in the lowlands must be stimulated in this region. We concluded that most of the region sustains well-conserved ecosystems, highlighting the importance of Paraná northern coast for the biodiversity maintenance of the Atlantic Forest.