Sex differences in past tense overregularization

Hartshorne and Ullman (2006) presented naturalistic language data from 25 children (15 boys, 10 girls) and showed that girls produced more past tense overregularization errors than did boys. In particular, girls were more likely to overregularize irregular verbs whose stems share phonological similarities with regular verbs. It was argued that the result supported the Declarative/Procedural model of language, a neuropsychological analogue of the dual-route approach to language. In the current study we present experimental data that are inconsistent with these naturalistic data. Eighty children (40 males, 40 females) aged 5;0–6;9 completed a past tense elicitation task, a test of declarative memory, and a test of non-verbal intelligence. The results revealed no sex differences on any of the measures. Instead, the best predictors of overregularization rates were item-level features of the test verbs. We discuss the results within the context of dual versus single route debate on past tense acquisition.

Age-related changes in ovarian characteristices, plasma sex steroids and fertility during pubertal development in captive female Murray cod Maccullochella peelii peelii

Age-related changes in ovarian development characteristics and plasma sex steroids in female Murray cod were examined throughout their second, third and fourth years of life to better understand the physiological and endocrine processes associated with puberty in this species in captivity. Spawning performance of 2+ and 3+ year old females was also assessed to identify ontogenetic differences in egg fertility. Puberty was acquired in 38% of 1+ year old females and 100% of age 2+ females. By age 3+, all females had developed full (adult) reproductive function. Ovarian development in pubertal fish was characterised by a rapid transition between cortical alveoli and lipid droplet oogenic phases, coinciding with significantly lower plasma 17β-oestradiol in age 2+ females (p < 0.05). Mean mature oocyte diameter (2.44 mm), post-fertilisation viability (30.80%) and hatchability (0.99%) of eggs from age 2+ females were significantly reduced relative to age 3+ adults (2.81 mm, 84.89% and 23.58%, respectively). Ovaries of pubertal Murray cod exhibited both vitellogenic and ovulatory capacities, yet functional abnormalities during secondary oocyte growth are likely to have contributed to poor egg fertility and consequently, evaluations of age-at-first maturity based on the presence of advanced ovarian stages may overestimate the reproductive potential of younger broodstock populations.

Producing animations to educate MSM and MSW to fashion safe sex practices and address low perceptions of personal risk

This project will produce animations in order to increase understandings of safe sex practices and address low perceptions of personal risk among two of the most vulnerable groups to HIV infection in Thailand. The animations will be incorporated into a prevention outreach program via Ipods, mobile phones and mobile-based portable devices to men who have sex with men (MSM) in their 'hide-outs', that is, parks, clubs and public toilets and male sex workers (MSW) in sex venues such as brothels, go-go bars and beats. To produce these animations, the project is first researching the sexual practices of MSM and MSW because of the lack of any substantive investigation of their social and sexual networks. This use of technology, informed by social research rather than behavioral studies, offers new possibilities to stem rapidly rising infection rates because it takes into account the diverse MSM and MSW identities. Overall, an estimated one- fifth (21%) of new HIV infections in Thailand occur in men who have unsafe sex with men. This disquieting increase highlights the fact that MSM are not adequately reached through HIV prevention programmes, most likely because little is known about their particular situations, contexts and practices.

A sex difference in the cortisol response to tail docking and ACTH develops between 1 and 8 weeks of age in lambs

It is important to understand factors that may influence responses to stress, as these factors may also influence vulnerability to pathologies that can develop when stress responses are excessive or prolonged. It is clear that, in adults, the sex of an individual can influence the cortisol response to stress in a stressor specific manner. Nevertheless, the stage of development at which these sex differences emerge is unknown. We tested the hypothesis that there are sex differences in the cortisol response to tail docking and ACTH in lambs of 1 and 8 weeks of age. We also established cortisol responses in males when tail docking was imposed alone and in combination with castration at these ages. In experiment 1, 1 and 8 week old male and female lambs were subjected to sham handling, tail docking or, in males, a combination of tail docking and castration. In experiment 2, we administered ACTH (1.0 IU/kg) to male and female lambs at 1 and 8 weeks of age. There were significant cortisol responses to all treatments at both ages. Sex differences in the cortisol responses to tail docking and ACTH developed between 1 and 8 weeks of age, with females having greater responses than males. The data suggest that the mechanism for the sex difference in response to tail docking may involve the adrenal glands. At both ages, in males, the cortisol response to the combined treatment of tail docking and castration was significantly greater than that for tail docking alone.

Sex difference in the suppressive effect of cortisol on pulsatile secretion of luteinizing hormone in sheep

We tested the hypothesis that there are sex differences in the inhibitory effect of cortisol on pulsatile LH secretion and pituitary responsiveness to GnRH in gonadectomized sheep. In experiment 1, pulsatile LH secretion was examined in gonadectomized ewes and rams infused with either saline, a low (250 µg/kg·h) or a high (500 µg/kg·h) dose of cortisol for 30 h. In experiment 2, direct pituitary actions of cortisol were assessed by monitoring LH pulse amplitude in response to exogenous GnRH in hypothalamo-pituitary disconnected ewes and rams infused with the low dose of cortisol. In experiment 1, the mean (±SEM) plasma LH concentration was (P < 0.05) reduced significantly during cortisol infusion in both sexes, but the effect was greater in rams. In ewes, LH pulse amplitude and frequency were reduced (P < 0.05) at the high, but not the low, cortisol dose, whereas total LH output (LH pulse amplitude multiplied by frequency) was reduced (P < 0.05) at both doses. In rams, LH pulse frequency and amplitude and total LH output were (P < 0.05) reduced significantly at both cortisol doses. In experiment 2, plasma LH concentration and pulse amplitude in response to exogenous GnRH were not affected by infusion of cortisol in either sex. We conclude that gonadectomized rams are more sensitive than gonadectomized ewes to the effects of cortisol to inhibit LH secretion and that sex differences exist in the specific actions of cortisol on LH pulses. The results of experiment 2 suggest that intact hypothalamic input to the pituitary is necessary for cortisol to inhibit pituitary responsiveness to GnRH.

Role of age, sex, and obesity in the higher prevalence of arthritis among lower socioeconomic groups: a population-based survey

Objective: To compare the prevalence of arthritis among population groups based on demographic, socioeconomic, and body mass index (BMI) characteristics; to investigate the combined influence of these factors on arthritis; and to assess the relationship between self-reported health and psychological distress and arthritis.

Methods: Data from the Victorian Population Health Survey (n = 7,500) were used in the study. Psychological distress was assessed using the Kessler Psychological Distress scale, and self-reported health was assessed by a single item. Multiple logistic regression was used to investigate the combined influence of demographic and socioeconomic factors and BMI on arthritis.

Results: Overall, 23% of Victorian adults (20% men and 26% women) reported having arthritis. The presence of arthritis was associated with high psychological distress (odds ratio [OR] 1.2; 95% confidence interval [95% CI] 1.1-1.4) and poor self-reported health (OR 1.9; 95% CI 1.7-2.1). Increased prevalence of arthritis was found in older age groups, lower education and income groups, and in people who were overweight or obese. Women had higher risk of arthritis, even after adjustment for age, residence, education, occupation, income, and BMI. Age and BMI independently predicted arthritis for men and women. For men, higher risk of arthritis was also associated with lower income.

Conclusion: Arthritis is a highly prevalent condition associated with poor health and high psychological distress. Prevalence of arthritis is disproportionately high among women and individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. As the prevalence of arthritis is predicted to increase, careful consideration of causal factors, and setting priorities for resource allocation for the treatment and prevention of arthritis are required.

Uteroplacental insufficiency and reducing litter size alters skeletal muscle mitochondrial biogenesis in a sex-specific manner in the adult rat

Uteroplacental insufficiency has been shown to impair insulin action and glucose homeostasis in adult offspring and may act in part via altered mitochondrial biogenesis and lipid balance in skeletal muscle. Bilateral uterine vessel ligation to induce uteroplacental insufficiency in offspring (Restricted) or sham surgery was performed on day 18 of gestation in rats. To match the litter size of Restricted offspring, a separate cohort of sham litters had litter size reduced to five at birth (Reduced Litter), which also restricted postnatal growth. Remaining litters from sham mothers were unaltered (Control). Offspring were studied at 6 mo of age. In males, both Restricted and Reduced Litter offspring had reduced gastrocnemius PPAR γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1 α) mRNA and protein, and mitochondrial transcription factor A (mtTFA) and cytochrome oxidase (COX) III mRNA (P < 0.05), whereas only Restricted had reduced skeletal muscle COX IV mRNA and protein and glycogen (P < 0.05), despite unaltered glucose tolerance, homeostasis model assessment (HOMA) and intramuscular triglycerides. In females, only gastrocnemius mtTFA mRNA was lower in Reduced Litter offspring (P < 0.05). Furthermore, glucose tolerance was not altered in any female offspring, although HOMA and intramuscular triglycerides increased in Restricted offspring (P < 0.05). It is concluded that restriction of growth due to uteroplacental insufficiency alters skeletal muscle mitochondrial biogenesis and metabolic characteristics, such as glycogen and lipid levels, in a sex-specific manner in the adult rat in the absence of impaired glucose tolerance. Furthermore, an adverse postnatal environment induced by reducing litter size also restricts growth and alters skeletal muscle mitochondrial biogenesis and metabolic characteristics in the adult rat.

Risk management or goods promotion : the relationship between approach and avoidance goals in treatment for sex offenders

In this paper, we propose that there is a direct relationship between risk management and goods (or goal) promotion in the treatment of sexual offenders. We argue that the causal conditions required to promote specific goods are likely, in turn, to eliminate or modify dynamic risk factors (i.e., criminogenic needs). First, the concepts of risk and goals are briefly discussed and their important dimensions clarified. Second, the relationship between criminogenic needs and goals are analyzed in depth. Third, we further clarify our arguments by focusing on four classes of criminogenic needs recently identified in the sexual offending literature: sexual self-regulation, offense supportive cognitions, level of interpersonal functioning, and general self-management problems. Finally, we conclude the paper with some suggestions for future research and treatment.

Fear and loathing in public policy : ethical issues in laws for sex offenders

Laws intended to increase protection from sex offenders are often prompted by sensational crimes that provoke public outrage. As public policy, questions have been raised about the legality and effectiveness of these legislative initiatives as enacted in North America, Australasia and the UK since the early 1990s. Mental health professionals involved in the implementation of these laws are faced with ethical concerns that distinguish this area of forensic practice from other clinical roles. This article presents a brief description of the impetus for specific laws allowing for involuntary civil commitment, extended supervision and community notification of sex offenders in different jurisdictions. A model of human rights is then used to consider the ways in which these laws threaten the rights of offenders, and provides a framework for identifying ethical concerns inherent in professional practice in this area.

Risk assessment of child-victim sex offenders for extended supervision in New Zealand

Recently enacted legislation in New Zealand, the Parole (Extended Supervision) Amendment Act 2004, allows for the imposition of up to 10 years of supervision in the community for child-victim sex offenders following their release from prison. The Act requires reports to be written specifically assessing the risk of sexual re-offending against children. This study examined the application of actuarial measures used by the New Zealand Department of Corrections in these assessments, including a computer-scored instrument based on static factors (the Automated Sexual Recidivism Scale; ASRS) and a clinically-based judgement of dynamic risk factors (the SONAR). It was expected that a conservative approach would be taken in making recommendations for or against extended periods of supervision, such that a high score on either measure would predict a recommendation for extended supervision. It was found, however, that a more individualized approach was often taken, whereby a baseline assessment of risk as predicted by the ASRS was adjusted by clinicians based on SONAR ratings. Implications for the practice of risk assessment in sexual re-offending are discussed.

Assessment and case conceptualization in sex offender treatment

The assessment of sexual offenders consists of the systematic collection of clinically relevant information in order to detect clinical phenomena or problems and to provide clear treatment targets. The result of this process is a conceptual model, or case formulation, representing the client’s various problems, the hypothesized underlying mechanisms, and their interrelationships. The focus of this article is on the importance of psychological assessment and case formulation in the rehabilitation and management of individuals convicted of sexual offences. First, we make a number of general points about the importance of evidence based assessment and clinical reasoning in case formulation. Second, we review key elements of contemporary sexual offender theory that highlights the heterogeneity evident among sex offenders and the implications for case formulation and treatment planning. Third, we discuss the role of case formulation for risk assessment and management. Finally, we illustrate our major points with a brief case study and conclude with a brief consideration of the value of case formulations.

Sex offender risk assessment : consideration of human rights in community protection legislation

ObjectivesRisk assessments provided to judicial decision makers as a part of the current generation of legislation for protecting the public from sexual offenders can have a profound impact on the rights of individual offenders. This article will identify some of the human rights issues inherent in using the current assessment procedures to formulate and communicate risk as a forensic expert in cases involving civil commitment, preventive detention, extended supervision, or special conditions of parole. MethodBased on the current professional literature and applied experience in legal proceedings under community protection laws in the United States and New Zealand, potential threats to the rights of offenders are identified. Central to these considerations are issues of the accuracy of current risk assessment measures, communicating the findings of risk assessment appropriately to the court, and the availability of competent forensic mental health professionals in carrying out these functions. The role of the forensic expert is discussed in light of the competing demands of protecting individual human rights and community protection. ConclusionActuarial risk assessment represents the best practice for informing judicial decision makers in cases involving sex offenders, yet these measures currently demonstrate substantial limitations in predictive accuracy when applied to individual offenders. These limitations must be clearly articulated when reporting risk assessment findings. Sufficient risk assessment expertise should be available to provide a balanced application of community protection laws.

Short term reoffending by child victim sex offenders in New Zealand : a comparison of those with and without extended supervision

Sexual offenders with child victims in New Zealand who are considered at high risk for reoffending are subject to an Extended Supervision Order. This allows for a period of supervision of up to ten years following release to the community. The present study examined 89 offenders given Extended Supervision Orders over the 33 month period since the legislation was enacted. All types of reoffending resulting in criminal convictions by this group were included. A matched sample of sexual offenders with child victims released prior to this legislation and a sample of offenders judged to be lower risk were compared to those under extended supervision. Offenders under extended supervision reoffended faster and at a higher rate for both sexual and general offences than those deemed lower risk, but at a lower rate than pre-extended supervision high risk offenders. The relationship between specialist treatment programme attendance and completion, actuarial risk level, and recidivism in the extended supervision sample were also investigated. These variables were found not to be significant predictors of sexual recidivism.

Case formulation with sex offenders : an illustration of individualized risk assessment

There has been a rapid expansion of the professional literature in risk assessment with sexual offenders over the past 20 years.  However, recent professional experience suggests that risk assessment reports often fail to be as relevant or useful as they might be for judicial decision-makers.  Research with large samples of offenders has refined our understanding of identifiable subgroups with different rates of sexual reoffending, but the management of risk requires that we deal effectively with individual offenders.  One area that can be improved is the development of case formulations of risk.  Clinicians must move beyond the mechanical use of actuarial static and dynamic risk factors to a broader integration of relevant information about the individual if they are to assist in managing risk in a way that serves the needs of the offender while protecting public safety.