09002-001 Indian Springs Pond Watershed Final Report

Silver Creek is a warm water stream resource located in one of the most intensely cropped portions of Clayton County. The stream has been included on Iowa’s 303(d) list of impaired waters since 2002. Aquatic life, which should be present in Silver Creek, isn’t there. According to the Draft Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) for Silver Creek, the primary nonpoint pollution sources are soil erosion from agricultural land uses and direct deposition of ammonia by livestock with access to the stream. The Clayton Soil & Water Conservation District has begun efforts to remove Silver Creek from the impaired waters list. The District has promoted stream corridor and sinkhole protection, and the installation of buffer practices along Silver Creek and its tributaries. Conservation practices have been targeted to crop fields to reduce sediment delivery to the stream. A series of news articles, newsletters, and field days have been utilized to increase public understanding of water quality issues. Landowner interest has outweighed available cost share resources. Additional financial support will allow the project to build upon its early successes, to further address the identified impairments, and to respond to a long list of landowners that are interested in conservation work on their farms.

Inversion of multiple intersecting high-resolution crosshole GPR profiles for hydrological characterization at the Boise Hydrogeophysical Research Site

The integration of geophysical data into the subsurface characterization problem has been shown in many cases to significantly improve hydrological knowledge by providing information at spatial scales and locations that is unattainable using conventional hydrological measurement techniques. In particular, crosshole ground-penetrating radar (GPR) tomography has shown much promise in hydrology because of its ability to provide highly detailed images of subsurface radar wave velocity, which is strongly linked to soil water content. Here, we develop and demonstrate a procedure for inverting together multiple crosshole GPR data sets in order to characterize the spatial distribution of radar wave velocity below the water table at the Boise Hydrogeophysical Research Site (BHRS) near Boise, Idaho, USA. Specifically, we jointly invert 31 intersecting crosshole GPR profiles to obtain a highly resolved and consistent radar velocity model along the various profile directions. The model is found to be strongly correlated with complementary neutron porosity-log data and is further corroborated by larger-scale structural information at the BHRS. This work is an important prerequisite to using crosshole GPR data together with existing hydrological measurements for improved groundwater flow and contaminant transport modeling.

Fate of the herbicide glyphosate and its metabolite AMPA in soils and their transfer to surface waters: A multi-scale approach in the Lavaux vineyards, western Switzerland

The use of herbicides in agriculture may lead to environmental problems, such as surface water pollution, with a potential risk for aquatic organisms. The herbicide glyphosate is the most used active ingredient in the world and in Switzerland. In the Lavaux vineyards it is nearly the only molecule applied. This work aimed at studying its fate in soils and its transfer to surface waters, using a multi-scale approach: from molecular (10-9 m) and microscopic scales (10-6 m), to macroscopic (m) and landscape ones (103 m). First of all, an analytical method was developed for the trace level quantification of this widely used herbicide and its main by-product, aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA). Due to their polar nature, their derivatization with 9-fluorenylmethyl chloroformate (FMOC-Cl) was done prior to their concentration and purification by solid phase extraction. They were then analyzed by ultra performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). The method was tested in different aqueous matrices with spiking tests and validated for the matrix effect correction in relevant environmental samples. Calibration curves established between 10 and 1000ng/l showed r2 values above 0.989, mean recoveries varied between 86 and 133% and limits of detection and quantification of the method were as low as 5 and 10ng/l respectively. At the parcel scale, two parcels of the Lavaux vineyard area, located near the Lutrive River at 6km to the east of Lausanne, were monitored to assess to which extent glyphosate and AMPA were retained in the soil or exported to surface waters. They were equipped at their bottom with porous ceramic cups and runoff collectors, which allowed retrieving water samples for the growing seasons 2010 and 2011. Results revealed that the mobility of glyphosate and AMPA in the unsaturated zone was likely driven by the precipitation regime and the soil characteristics, such as slope, porosity structure and layer permeability discrepancy. Elevated glyphosate and AMPA concentrations were measured at 60 and 80 cm depth at parcel bottoms, suggesting their infiltration in the upper parts of the parcels and the presence of preferential flow in the studied parcels. Indeed, the succession of rainy days induced the gradual saturation of the soil porosity, leading to rapid infiltration through macropores, as well as surface runoff formation. Furthermore, the presence of more impervious weathered marls at 100 cm depth induced throughflows, the importance of which for the lateral transport of the herbicide molecules was determined by the slope steepness. Important rainfall events (>10 mm/day) were clearly exporting molecules from the soil top layer, as indicated by important concentrations in runoff samples. A mass balance showed that total loss (10-20%) mainly occurred through surface runoff (96%) and, to a minor extent, by throughflows in soils (4%), with subsequent exfiltration to surface waters. Observations made in the Lutrive River revealed interesting details of glyphosate and AMPA dynamics in urbanized landscapes, such as the Lavaux vineyards. Indeed, besides their physical and chemical properties, herbicide dynamics at the catchment level strongly depend on application rates, precipitation regime, land use and also on the presence of drains or constructed channels. Elevated concentrations, up to 4970 ng/l, observed just after the application, confirmed the diffuse export of these compounds from the vineyard area by surface runoff during main rain events. From April to September 2011, a total load of 7.1 kg was calculated, with 85% coming from vineyards and minor urban sources and 15% from arable crops. Small vineyard surfaces could generate high concentrations of herbicides and contribute considerably to the total load calculated at the outlet, due to their steep slopes (~10%). The extrapolated total amount transferred yearly from the Lavaux vineyards to the Lake of Geneva was of 190kg. At the molecular scale, the possible involvement of dissolved organic matter (DOM) in glyphosate and copper transport was studied using UV/Vis fluorescence spectroscopy. Combined with parallel factor (PARAFAC) analysis, this technique allowed characterizing DOM of soil and surface water samples from the studied vineyard area. Glyphosate concentrations were linked to the fulvic-like spectroscopic signature of DOM in soil water samples, as well as to copper, suggesting the formation of ternary complexes. In surface water samples, its concentrations were also correlated to copper ones, but not in a significant way to the fulvic-like signature. Quenching experiments with standards confirmed field tendencies in the laboratory, with a stronger decrease in fluorescence intensity for fulvic-like fluorophore than for more aromatic ones. Lastly, based on maximum concentrations measured in the river, an environmental risk for these compounds was assessed, using laboratory tests and ecotoxicity data from the literature. In our case and with the methodology applied, the risk towards aquatic species was found negligible (RF<1).

09005-002 Silver Creek Watershed Final Report

Silver Creek is a warm water stream resource located in one of the most intensely cropped portions of Clayton County. The stream has been included on Iowa’s 303(d) list of impaired waters since 2002. Aquatic life, which should be present in Silver Creek, isn’t there. According to the Draft Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) for Silver Creek, the primary nonpoint pollution sources are soil erosion from agricultural land uses and direct deposition of ammonia by livestock with access to the stream. The Clayton Soil & Water Conservation District has begun efforts to remove Silver Creek from the impaired waters list. The District has promoted stream corridor and sinkhole protection, and the installation of buffer practices along Silver Creek and its tributaries. Conservation practices have been targeted to crop fields to reduce sediment delivery to the stream. A series of news articles, newsletters, and field days have been utilized to increase public understanding of water quality issues. Landowner interest has outweighed available cost share resources. Additional financial support will allow the project to build upon its early successes, to further address the identified impairments, and to respond to a long list of landowners that are interested in conservation work on their farms.

08009-005 Storm Lake Watershed Final Report

Storm Lake, the state's fourth largest natural lake, has been the centerpiece of significant economic development, including a resort, water park, and state marina. While there have been considerable improvements to the lake's water quality through a major on-going lake restoration program and watershed project, the Little Storm Lake area still needs to be addressed. Little Storm Lake is a 190 acre area on the nmihwest side of Storm Lake. The water level in both areas is based on the dam height located on the southeast corner of Storm Lake. Approximately 70% of the water from the watershed flows through Little Storm Lake. Little Storm Lake originally had the ability to remove much of the sediment and nutrients from incoming waters. However, due to degradation, proper wetland function has been compromised. Under normal hydrologic conditions Little Storm Lake has the potential to function as a sediment trap for Storm Lake, but tllis capacity is overwhelmed during high flows. Little Storm Lake is at or near its sediment trapping capacity, which results in higher sediment transport into Storm Lake. Resuspension of sediments due to wind and other in-lake dynamics, such as rough fish, further exacerbate the total turbidity from suspended sediment and results in movement of sediment from Little Storm Lake into Storm Lake. This project includes a fish barrier and water retention structure between Little Storm Lake and Storm Lake and the construction of a pumping station and associated equipment. The project involves periodic dewatering of Little Storm Lake during years of favorable climatological conditions to consolidate the sediments and revegetate the area. Construction of the fish banier would aid restoration efforts by preventing rough fish from destroying the vegetation and would decrease recruitment of rough fish by limiting their spawning area. In the future, if the diminished trapping capacity of Little Storm Lake still results in sediment moving into Storm Lake, a dredging project would be initiated to deepen Little Storm Lake.

06009-004 Price Creek Watershed Final Report

Price Creek is a 13 mile long stream located in SE Benton County and the NE corner of Iowa County. It ends below the village of Amana where it flows into the Iowa River. The Iowa and Benton County Soil & Water Conservation Districts (SWCDs) applied (and were tentatively approved) for 319/WPF/WSPF funding to treat livestock and water quality issues in this watershed over the next three years. That project’s funds were allocated for a Project Coordinator, information and education activities, and cost share for Best Management Practices (BMPs) directed toward livestock issues and nutrient issues. Soil erosion and sedimentation are also problems in this 18,838 acre watershed. It is 64% HEL (highly erodible land) and 58% of it is cropped. With a coordinator working with Price Creek producers, this would be an excellent time to also address the soil loss and sedimentation issues in this watershed. We will offer additional cost share incentives on BMPs targeting soil erosion on the critical areas we’ve identified. We are applying to IWIRB for additional funding to allow us to cost share specific BMPs up to 75% to treat soil loss in these critical areas of the Price Creek Watershed.

Bayesian Markov-chain-Monte-Carlo inversion of time-lapse cross hole ground-penetrating radar data to characterize the vadose zone at the Arrenaes field site, Denmark

The ground-penetrating radar (GPR) geophysical method has the potential to provide valuable information on the hydraulic properties of the vadose zone because of its strong sensitivity to soil water content. In particular, recent evidence has suggested that the stochastic inversion of crosshole GPR traveltime data can allow for a significant reduction in uncertainty regarding subsurface van Genuchten-Mualem (VGM) parameters. Much of the previous work on the stochastic estimation of VGM parameters from crosshole GPR data has considered the case of steady-state infiltration conditions, which represent only a small fraction of practically relevant scenarios. We explored in detail the dynamic infiltration case, specifically examining to what extent time-lapse crosshole GPR traveltimes, measured during a forced infiltration experiment at the Arreneas field site in Denmark, could help to quantify VGM parameters and their uncertainties in a layered medium, as well as the corresponding soil hydraulic properties. We used a Bayesian Markov-chain-Monte-Carlo inversion approach. We first explored the advantages and limitations of this approach with regard to a realistic synthetic example before applying it to field measurements. In our analysis, we also considered different degrees of prior information. Our findings indicate that the stochastic inversion of the time-lapse GPR data does indeed allow for a substantial refinement in the inferred posterior VGM parameter distributions compared with the corresponding priors, which in turn significantly improves knowledge of soil hydraulic properties. Overall, the results obtained clearly demonstrate the value of the information contained in time-lapse GPR data for characterizing vadose zone dynamics.

Leaf miner incidence in coffee plants under different drip irrigation regimes and planting densities

The objective of this work was to evaluate the effect of different drip irrigation regimes and planting densities on the incidence of the leaf miner, Leucoptera coffeella, in arabica coffee plants for one year. The experiment was carried out in 2008, in a complete randomized block design, in a split-plot in time arrangement, with four replicates. The treatments consisted of four drip irrigation regimes - soil water balance, irrigations at 20 and 60 kPa soil tensions, and a nonirrigated treatment -, which were distributed at three plant densities: 2, 500, 5, 000, and 10, 000 plants per hectare. The evaluations were made on a monthly basis between January and December 2008. The highest pest occurrence period was from August to November, a season with low-air relative humidity preceded by a drought period. Irrigated coffee plants showed an incidence of intact mines 2.2 times lower than that of nonirrigated plants. Irrigation and increasing of plant density contribute to the reduction of coffee leaf miner occurrence.

Enzyme convertedstarch in pigment coating

Tämän diplomityön tavoitteena oli selvittää entsyymikonvertoinnin mahdollisuudet vaikuttaa sideainetärkkelyksen toiminnallisiin ominaisuuksiin. Tärkein tehtävä oli etsiä vastaukset kysymykseen, kuinka paljon entsyymikonvertointia optimoimalla voidaan maksimoida tärkkelyksen positiivisia vaikutuksia. Tavoitteena oli myös tutkia, voiko lisäaineita käyttämällä ja tärkkelystä plastisoimalla säilyttää tärkkelyksen vaikutus paperin jäykkyyteen ja saada tärkkelysfilmille joustavuutta. Kirjallisuusosassa tarkasteltiin tärkkelyksen entsyymikonvertointiin vaikuttavia tekijöitä, eri tärkkelysraaka-aineiden eroja, sekä konvertoinnissa käytettävien entsyymien ominaisuuksia. Kirjallisuusosassa tarkasteltiin myöstärkkelyksen käyttöä sideaineena pigmenttipäällystyksessä. Kokeellisessa osassakeskityttiin selvittämään entsyymikonvertoinnin olosuhteiden, käytettävän raakatärkkelyksen ja entsyymin vaikutusta konvertoidun tärkkelyksen ominaisuuksiin. Konvertoiduista tärkkelyksistä valmistettiin päällystyspastat, ja tutkittiin niinpastan kuin päällystetyn paperin ominaisuuksia. Myös erilaisten pehmentimien vaikutusta niin päällystyspastaan, kuin paperin pinnalle tutkittiin. Havaittiin, että konvertoimalla tärkkelysketjua entsymaattisesti, voidaan tärkkelysketjun pituutta säädellä. Tarkoituksena oli konvertoida tärkkelystä niin, että tärkkelyksen molekyyliketjujakaumat sisältävät lyhyitä, keskipitkiä sekäpitkiä molekyylejä. Päällystämisen havaittiin olevan vaikeaa Helicoaterilla varsinkin pitkäketjuista tärkkelystä suuren määrän sisältävillä pastoilla. Myös tärkkelys/lateksi-suhde vaihteli eri pastoilla. Päällystyspastojen reologisia ominaisuuksia testattaessa huomattiin, että tärkkelysketjun pituuden kasvaessa pastanviskositeetti lisääntyy ja vesiretentio vähenee. Havaittiin vain muutamia teknisiä paperiominaisuuksia, jotka korreloivat hyvin tärkkelysketjun pituuden kanssa. Näitä olivat kiilto, Gurley-Hill huokoisuus, taivutusvastus, taivutuspituus sekä IGT pintalujuus. Pehmentimien ei havaittu vaikuttavan moneenkaan paperin eri tekniseen ominaisuuteen. Suurimmat erot huomattiin paperin taivutuspituudessa ja taivutusvastuksessa.

Spray coating technique asa surface treatment for woodcontaining paper grades

The objective of this work was to introduce the emerging non-contacting spray coating process and compare it to the existing coating techniques. Particular emphasis was given to the details of the spraying process of paper coating colour and the base paper requirements set by the new coating method. Spraying technology itself is nothing new, but the atomisation process of paper coating colour is quite unknown to the paper industry. The differences between the rheology of painting and coating colours make it very difficult to utilise the existing information from spray painting research. Based on the trials, some basic conclusion can be made:The results of this study suggest that the Brookfield viscosity of spray coating colour should be as low as possible, presently a 50 mPas level is regarded as an optimum. For the paper quality and coater runnability, the solids level should be as high as possible. However, the graininess of coated paper surface and the nozzle wear limits the maximum solids level to 60 % at the moment. Most likelydue to the low solids and low viscosity of the coating colour the low shear Brookfield viscosity correlates very well with the paper and spray fan qualities. High shear viscosity is also important, but yet less significant than the low shear viscosity. Droplet size should be minimized and besides keeping the brrokfield viscosity low that can be helped by using a surfactant or dispersing agent in the coating colour formula. Increasing the spraying pressure in the nozzle can also reduce the droplet size. The small droplet size also improves the coating coverage, since there is hardly any levelling taking place after the impact with the base paper. Because of the lack of shear forces after the application, the pigment particles do not orientate along the paper surface. Therefore the study indicates that based on the present know-how, no quality improvements can be obtained by the use of platy type of pigments. The other disadvantage of them is the rapid deterioration of the nozzle lifetime. Further research in both coating colour rheology and nozzle design may change this in the future, but so far only round shape pigments, like typically calcium carbonate is, can be used with spray coating. The low water retention characteristics of spray coating, enhanced by the low solids and low viscosity, challenge the base paper absorption properties.Filler level has to be low not to increase the number of small pores, which have a great influence on the absorption properties of the base paper. Hydrophobic sizing reduces this absorption and prevents binder migration efficiently. High surface roughness and especially poor formation of the base paper deteriorate thespray coated paper properties. However, pre-calendering of the base paper does not contribute anything to the finished paper quality, at least at the coating colour solids level below 60 %. When targeting a standard offset LWC grade, spraycoating produces similar quality to film coating, but yet blade coating being on a slightly better level. However, because of the savings in both investment and production costs, spray coating may have an excellent future ahead. The porousnature of the spray coated surface offers an optimum substrate for the coldset printing industry to utilise the potential of high quality papers in their business.

Guidelines for irrigation scheduling of banana crop in São Francisco Valley, Brazil. I - Root distribution and activity

In order to establish guidelines for irrigation water management of banana cv. Pacovan (AAB group, Prata sub-group) in Petrolina County, northeastern Brazil, the root distribution and activity were measured on an irrigated plantation, in a medium texture soil, with plants spaced in a 3 x 3 m grid. Root distribution was evaluated by the soil profile method aided by digital image analysis, while root activity was indirectly determined by the changing of soil water content and by the direction of soil water flux. Data were collected since planting in January 1999 to the 3rd harvest in September 2001. Effective rooting depth increased from 0.4 m at 91 days after planting (dap), to 0.6 m at 370, 510, and 903 dap, while water absorption by roots was predominantly in the top 0,6 m.

Autoecología de los hayedos catalanes

Este estudio está basado en el muestreo de campo y posterior análisis de 24 parcelas de hayedo seleccionadas mediante una estratificación de su área de distribución basada en la clasificación CLATERES de la Ecorregión Catalano-Aragonesa. En cada parcela se han evaluado 3 parámetros fisiográficos, 15 climáticos y 18 edáficos, a partir de los cuales se han establecido sus valores paramétricos centrales y marginales que permiten definir los hábitats fisiográfico, climático y edáfico de las masas de Fagus sylvatica L. en Cataluña. Los hayedos catalanes se presentan sobre substratos litológicos muy diversos (plutonitas, vulcanitas, metamorfitas y sedimentitas, tanto ácidas como básicas), con texturas predominantes francas, franco-arenosas o franco-limosas. Los suelos, según FAO, son mayoritariamente cambisoles. A pesar de que la capacidad de retención de agua de sus suelos es escasa, la sequía fisiológica es reducida. Los humus predominantemente pertenecen a los tipos mull forestal y mull cálcico. Además, se presentan una serie de parámetros selvícolas ( Densidad de pies y densidad de chirpiales, Area basimétrica, Altura Total dominante, Índices de Hart-Becking, Índice de Calidad de Estación y Edad de la masa) que al correlacionarlos con los ecológicos nos ha permitido comprobar que los mejores hayedos se encuentran en las localizaciones más térmicas, en las que incluso se podría producir sequía fisiológica si no fuera por que existen suficientes precipitaciones estivales.

Filmipäällystimen nippitapahtuman vaikutus päällystyskoneen ajettavuuteen

Työn tavoitteena oli syventyä filmipäällystimen nippitapahtumaan ja siellä tapahtuviin ilmiöihin. Tämän lisäksi selvitettiin esipäällystysparametrien ja pohjapaperin merkitys filmipäällystimen ajettavuudelle. Erityisesti pyrittiin selvittämään päällystemäärän ja applikointitelojen momenttieron vaikutus ajettavuuteen sekä kiihdytysvaiheessa ilmenevien ajettavuusongelmien syntymekanismit. Työn kokeellinen osa jakaantui kahteen osaan. Ensimmäisessä osassa pyritään löytämään lisäymmärrystä nippitapahtuman ilmiöille joita sitten hyödynnetään toisen osan koeajoissa. Staattisilla kuormituskokeilla tutkittiin telapinnan kokoonpuristumista ja suurnopeus-kamerakuvauksilla nipin geometriaa päällystyskoneen ajon aikana. Applikointitelojen momenttierokoeajoilla pyrittiin selvittämään paperiradan mahdollista luistoa nipissä. MCA-kosteuspitoisuusanalysaattorilla mitattiin nippitapahtuman muutosten vaikutusta filmipäällystimen paluufilmin ominaisuuksiin. Muuttelemalla päällystemäärää ja – jakaumaa sekä applikointitelojen momenttieroa selvitettiin esipäällystysparametrien vaikutus filmipäällystimen ajettavuuteen. Muokkaamalla pohjapaperin absorptiokykyä sekä pastan vedenpidätyskykyä tutkittiin nestepenetraation vaikutusta ajettavuuteen. Telapinnan kokoonpuristuman havaittiin olevan pieni eikä ajon aikana nipin geometriassa havaittu muutoksia. Paperiradan todettiin luistavan nipissä, mutta luistoilmiö oli huomattavasti pienempi mitä nopeuserolukemista voidaan päätellä. Kiihdytysvaiheessa havaittiin selviä muutoksia paluufilmissä, mutta ajon aikana paluufilmi pysyi lähes vakiona. Päällystemäärän todettiin olevan suurin yksittäinen tekijä filmipäällystimen ajettavuudessa ja siihen tulee kiinnittää erityistä huomiota filmipäällystimen kiihdytysvaiheessa. Aukirullauksen levitystelan vaihdon myötä todettiin pohjapaperiin kohdistuvilla kuormituksilla olevan myös suuri merkitys filmipäällystimen ajettavuudelle.

An Optimum Coating Colour Formula for CSWO-printing

Pigmenttipäällystyksen tarkoituksena on parantaa painopapereiden pintaominaisuuksia. Tämän työn tarkoituksena oli löytää sopiva päällystyspasta päällystetylle coldset-paperille. Kirjallisuusosassa on käsitelty coldset-painatusta ja sen ongelmia. Päällystysmenetelmän perusteita, pastan ominaisuuksia ja niiden vaikutusta päällystystulokseen on myös käsitelty. Lisäksi on esitelty joitakin päällystetyn paperin pinnantutkimusmenetelmiä. Kokeellisessa osassa on tutkittu erilaisten pastakoostumusten ja päällystemäärien sekä kalanteroinnin vaikutusta paperin painettavuuteen. Paperit on päällystetty Helicoaterilla ja joitakin pastoja on testattu myös pilot-mittakaavaisessa päällystyksessä. Selitystä paperin käyttäytymiseen painatuksessa on etsitty päällystetyn paperin pintarakenteesta. Paras painettavuus saavutetaan päällysteellä, jossa pigmenttinä on vain karbonaatti. Painojälkeä voidaan parantaa käyttämällä kalsinoitua kaoliinia yhdessä karbonaatin kanssa, mutta tämän päällysteen pintalujuus ei ole riittävä CSWO-painatukseen. Tärkkipigmentti parantaa veden ja painovärin absorptiota ja siten tekee painetun tuotteen kuivemmaksi ja miellyttävämmän tuntuiseksi, mutta aiheuttaa smearingia. Tämä johtuu liian nopeasta musteen asettuvuudesta. "Pehmeä" SB-lateksi soveltuu paremmin offset-painatukseen kuin "kova" lateksi, joka sisältää myös PVAc:ta. "Pehmeällä" lateksilla saadaan parempi pintalujuus ja painojälki kuin "kovalla" lateksilla. Paperin pölyävyyttä painatuksessa voidaan vähentää nostamalla päällystemäärää ja laskemalla pastan kuiva-ainepitoisuutta. Kalanteroinnilla ei pintalujuutta tai painojälkeä voida parantaa. Selitys tutkimuksessa käsiteltyjen papereiden painojäljelle ja painettavuudelle löydetään tutkimalla päällysteen pintarakennetta. Painojälkeen vaikuttaa eniten päällysteen peittoaste. Huonoa peittävyyttä voidaan parantaa nostamalla päällystemäärää. Pölyäminen painatuksessa johtuu pigmenteistä, jotka eivät ole sidottuja paperin pintaan. Tämä taas johtuu pastan huonosta vesiretentiosta. Hyödyllisintä tietoa näiden papereiden pintarakenteesta saadaan tutkimalla pintaa pyyhkäisyelektonimikroskoopilla (SEM), atomivoimamikroskoopilla (AFM) ja laserindusoidulla plasmaspektrometrilla (LIPS). LIPSin etuna on se, että päällystemääräjaukauma voidaan määrittää sekä x-y- että z-suunnassa samanaikaisesti samasta kohdasta. LIPSissä myös näytteen preparointitarve on hyvin vähäinen.

Non-wood massojen vedenpoiston arvioiminen märkäpuristuksessa

Yksivuotisten kasvien (non-wood) kuitua verrataan usein lehtipuukuituihin. Käytetyimpiä non-wood kasveja ovat vehnän olki, bambu, järviruoko ja bagassi. Non-wood massan erottaa puumassasta kuitenkin korkea silikaattipitoisuus sekä parenkyymisolupitoisuus, joka antaa massalle korkean hienoainepitoisuuden. Tämä yhdessä korkean hemiselluloosapitoisuuden ja lyhyen kuidun pituuden kanssa heikentävät voimakkaasti non-wood massan vedenpoisto-ominaisuuksia. Non-wood kuidulla voidaan korvata lehtipuumassaa hienopapereissa. Non-wood kuitu antaa paperille hyvän opasiteetin, korkean valonsirontakertoimen sekä sileän painopinnan. Massaan lisättävä pitkäkuituinen havupuumassa parantaa ajetta¬vuutta paperikoneella ja helpottaa massan vedenpoistoa. Non-wood massan vedenpoistoa voidaan tehostaa esimerkiksi poistamalla osa hienoaineesta, käyttämällä non-wood massalle sopivaa keittotapaa sekä käyttämällä märkä¬puristuksessa pitkänippityyppistä puristinratkaisua. Myös non-wood kuidun kuivaaminen parantaa vedenpoistoa. Tässä tutkimuksessa kirjallisuusosassa keskityttiin yleisimpiin paperin valmistuksessa käytettäviin non-wood kuidun lähteisiin, märkäpuristuksen teoriaan ja tapoihin tehostaa vedenpoistoa. Kokeellisessa osassa tutkittiin vehnänolkimassan käyttäytymistä märkäpuristuksessa erilaisten ominaisuuksien pohjalta. Tutkimuksen kohteena oli non-wood massan keittotapa (hapan/alkali), hienoainepitoisuus, silikaattipitoisuus sekä kuivattu/kuivaamaton kuitu. Vertailun vuoksi tutkimuksessa oli mukana myös yksi järviruokomassa. Tuloksista huomataan, että non-wood massan vedenpoistoon vaikuttaa hienoainepitoisuus, kuidun kuivaus sekä massan valmistustapa. Järviruokomassan veden¬poisto on tehokkaampaa kuin vehnänolkimassan paremman kuitu¬koostumuksensa takia. Jos hienopaperimassassa korvataan lehtipuumassaa non-wood kuidulla maksimissaan 40 %, massan vedenpoistoa voidaan hyvin arvioida erilaisten suotautuvuusmittojen, kuten freeneksen, vedenpidätyskyvyn ja suotautumisajan, avulla.