Soil sampling design and sampling techniques for soil properties monitoring – common difficulties related to forest soils

Mathematical models and statistical analysis are key instruments in soil science scientific research as they can describe and/or predict the current state of a soil system. These tools allow us to explore the behavior of soil related processes and properties as well as to generate new hypotheses for future experimentation. A good model and analysis of soil properties variations, that permit us to extract suitable conclusions and estimating spatially correlated variables at unsampled locations, is clearly dependent on the amount and quality of data and of the robustness techniques and estimators. On the other hand, the quality of data is obviously dependent from a competent data collection procedure and from a capable laboratory analytical work. Following the standard soil sampling protocols available, soil samples should be collected according to key points such as a convenient spatial scale, landscape homogeneity (or non-homogeneity), land color, soil texture, land slope, land solar exposition. Obtaining good quality data from forest soils is predictably expensive as it is labor intensive and demands many manpower and equipment both in field work and in laboratory analysis. Also, the sampling collection scheme that should be used on a data collection procedure in forest field is not simple to design as the sampling strategies chosen are strongly dependent on soil taxonomy. In fact, a sampling grid will not be able to be followed if rocks at the predicted collecting depth are found, or no soil at all is found, or large trees bar the soil collection. Considering this, a proficient design of a soil data sampling campaign in forest field is not always a simple process and sometimes represents a truly huge challenge. In this work, we present some difficulties that have occurred during two experiments on forest soil that were conducted in order to study the spatial variation of some soil physical-chemical properties. Two different sampling protocols were considered for monitoring two types of forest soils located in NW Portugal: umbric regosol and lithosol. Two different equipments for sampling collection were also used: a manual auger and a shovel. Both scenarios were analyzed and the results achieved have allowed us to consider that monitoring forest soil in order to do some mathematical and statistical investigations needs a sampling procedure to data collection compatible to established protocols but a pre-defined grid assumption often fail when the variability of the soil property is not uniform in space. In this case, sampling grid should be conveniently adapted from one part of the landscape to another and this fact should be taken into consideration of a mathematical procedure.

Forest soil short term response to prescribed fire: an approach by Principal Components Analysis

In the current context of serious climate changes, where the increase of the frequency of some extreme events occurrence can enhance the rate of periods prone to high intensity forest fires, the National Forest Authority often implements, in several Portuguese forest areas, a regular set of measures in order to control the amount of fuel mass availability (PNDFCI, 2008). In the present work we’ll present a preliminary analysis concerning the assessment of the consequences given by the implementation of prescribed fire measures to control the amount of fuel mass in soil recovery, in particular in terms of its water retention capacity, its organic matter content, pH and content of iron. This work is included in a larger study (Meira-Castro, 2009(a); Meira-Castro, 2009(b)). According to the established praxis on the data collection, embodied in multidimensional matrices of n columns (variables in analysis) by p lines (sampled areas at different depths), and also considering the quantitative data nature present in this study, we’ve chosen a methodological approach that considers the multivariate statistical analysis, in particular, the Principal Component Analysis (PCA ) (Góis, 2004). The experiments were carried out in a soil cover over a natural site of Andaluzitic schist, in Gramelas, Caminha, NW Portugal, who was able to maintain itself intact from prescribed burnings from four years and was submit to prescribed fire in March 2008. The soils samples were collected from five different plots at six different time periods. The methodological option that was adopted have allowed us to identify the most relevant relational structures inside the n variables, the p samples and in two sets at the same time (Garcia-Pereira, 1990). Consequently, and in addition to the traditional outputs produced from the PCA, we have analyzed the influence of both sampling depths and geomorphological environments in the behavior of all variables involved.

Soil attributes dynamics evaluation after prescribed burning practice in northwestern Portugal forest

The Portuguese northern forests are often and severely affected by wildfires during the summer season. These occurrences affect significant and rudely all ecosystems, namely soil, fauna and flora. Preventive actions such as prescribed burnings and clear-cut logging are frequently used and have showed a significant reduction of the natural wildfires occurrences. In Portugal, and due to some technical and operational conditions, prescribed burnings in forests are the most common preventive action used to reduce the existing fuel hazard. The overall impacts of this preventive action on Portuguese ecosystems are complex and not fully understood. This work reports to the study of a prescribed burning impact in soil chemical properties, namely pH, humidity and organic matter, by monitoring the soil self-recovery capacity. The experiments were carried out in soil cover over a natural site of Andaluzitic schist, in Gramelas, Caminha, Portugal, who was able to maintain itself intact from prescribed burnings from four years. The composed soil samples were collected from five plots at three different layers (0-3cm, 3-6cm and 6-18cm) 1 day before prescribed fire and after the prescribed fire. The results have shown that the dynamic equilibrium in soil was affected significantly.

Comparison of indirect immunofluorescence test for measles antibodies with haemagglutination inhibition and plaque neutralization tests

Indirect Immunofluorescence (IFA), Plaque Reduction Neutralization (PRN) and Haemagglutination Inhibition (HI) tests for measles antibodies were carried out in 197 sera obtained from umbilical cord and vaccinated children. The IFA was also applied to blood samples collected with filter paper. IFA results demonstrated that the test is relatively simple to perform, with good reproducibility for different antigen lots. Good correlation was obtained between IFA, PRN and HI antibody titers. Better correlation was demonstrated with IFA and PRN than with HI and PRN tests. Sensitivity of IFA in detecting antibody was less effective than PRN, however more effective than HI using rhesus monkey red blood cells. PRN antibody titers over 100 were detected by IFA but not by HI (9.7% with negative results). IFA may be of considerable practical use and able to substitute HI in Seroepidemiological surveys and to evaluate vaccine efficacy. It also can be simplified by employing filter paper collected samples.

Determination du niveau d'anticorps antitetaniques en donneurs de sang au moyen du test ELISA-TÉTANOS (São Paulo, SP, Bresil)

Le test ELISA-TÉTANOS (Biosys, France) a été utilisé pour le titrage des anti-corps tétaniques (sensibilité = 0,0025 UI/ml) en sérums humains de donneurs de sang, 566 hommes et 108 femmes, âges de 18 à 58 ans, moyenne de 29 ans, provenant de São Paulo, SP, Brésil. L'OMS, acceptant seulement la séroneutralisation sur souris (NT), la méthode de référence, pour les études sur la protection contre le tétanos, préconise le titre de 0,01 UI/ml comme minimum protecteur. BOURLEAUD & HUET ont proposé la limite de 0,06 UI/ml quand s'emploie le test ELISA, en attendant à une certaine discordance inévitable entre les méthodes. Parmi les 674 sérums étudiés, 178 (26,41%) n'ont pas présenté d'anticorps (< 0,0025 UI/ml); 413 (61,28%) ont présenté des résultats égaux ou supérieurs à 0,01 UI/ml et en 232 (34,42%) les titres ont été égaux ou supérieurs à 0,06 UI/ml. Le pourcentage d'individus protégés a été inversement proportionnel à 1'âge: environ 50% dans le groupe le plus jeune (hommes de 18 à 35 ans et femmes de 18 à 23 ans) contre environ 10% dans le groupe de plus de 42 ans ont présenté des titres sûrement protecteurs (> 0,06 UI/ml).

Diagnosis of Helicobacter pylori: comparison of an urease test, histological visualization of curved bacteria and culture

Helicobacter pylori was investigated in 189 patients for culture, microscopic visualization of campylobacter-like organisms (CLO) and a ten minute urease test. In 136 (72%) the bacteria was isolated, and in 98 of them CLO were histologically detected. Specificity, sensitivity, positive and negative predictive values of microscopic visualization of CLO were: 0.77, 0.73, 0.97 and 0.51, respectively; 98 culture-positive patients were urease test positive. Specificity, sensitivity, positive and negative predictive values of the urease test were: 0.83, 0.72, 0.92 and 0.54, respectively. Comparing the urease test with culture of H. pylori combined with microscopic visualization of CLO, its specificity, sensitivity, positive and negative predictive values were: 0.95, 0.71, 0.98 and 0.48, respectively. Probably, these values are not real, since bacteria different from H. pylori could be misclassified as CLO.

Comparison on the performance of Leishmania major-like and Leishmania braziliensis braziliensis as antigen for new world leishmaniasis IgG-immunofluorescence test

The performance of an antigen of L. major-like promastigotes for the serological diagnosis of mucocutaneous leishmaniasis in the IgG-immunofluorescent test was compared to that of an antigen of L. braziliensis braziliensis. Each antigen was used to test two hundred and twenty-four sera of etiologies such as mucocutaneous leishmaniasis, deep mycoses, toxoplasmosis, malaria, Chagas' disease, visceral leishmaniasis, anti-nuclear factor, schistosomaiasis, rheumatoid factor and normal controls. Agreement between responses to each antigen was high: 77.2% of leishmaniases sera agreed on a positive or a negative result to both antigens and 91.1 % of control sera. Cross reactivity was restricted to Chagas' disease sera, visceral leishmaniasis, anti-nuclear factor and paracoccidiodomycosis. The quantitative response of leishmaniasis and Chagas' disease sera to both antigens was evaluated by a linear regression; although the y-intercept and the slope were different for each antigen, neither was better than the other in the disclosure of anti-Leishmania antibodies. In the case of Chagas' disease sera the L. major-like antigen was better than L. b. braziliensis' to disclose cross-reacting antibodies.

Multiple Linear Regression and Artificial Neural Networks to Predict Time and Efficiency of Soil Vapor Extraction

The prediction of the time and the efficiency of the remediation of contaminated soils using soil vapor extraction remain a difficult challenge to the scientific community and consultants. This work reports the development of multiple linear regression and artificial neural network models to predict the remediation time and efficiency of soil vapor extractions performed in soils contaminated separately with benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene, trichloroethylene, and perchloroethylene. The results demonstrated that the artificial neural network approach presents better performances when compared with multiple linear regression models. The artificial neural network model allowed an accurate prediction of remediation time and efficiency based on only soil and pollutants characteristics, and consequently allowing a simple and quick previous evaluation of the process viability.

Alternative chelating agents: Evaluation of the ready biodegradability and complexation properties

The ready biodegradability of four chelating agents, N,N -(S,S)-bis[1-carboxy-2-(imidazol-4-yl)ethyl]ethylenediamine (BCIEE), N - ethylenedi-L-cysteine (EC), N,N -bis (4-imidazolymethyl)ethylenediamine (EMI) and 2,6-pyridine dicarboxylic acid (PDA), was tested according to the OECD guideline for testing of chemicals. PDA proved to be a readily biodegradable substance. However, none of the other three compounds were degraded during the 28 days of the test. Chemical simulations were performed for the four compounds in order to understand their ability to complex with some metal ions (Ca, Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Zn) and discuss possible applications of these chelating agents. Two different conditions were simulated: (i) in the presence of the chelating agent and one metal ion, and (ii) in the simultaneous presence of the chelating agent and all metal ions with an excess of Ca. For those compounds that were revealed not to be readily biodegradable (BCIEE, EC and EMI), applications were evaluated where this property was not fundamental or even not required. Chemical simulations pointed out that possible applications for these chelating agents are: food fortification, food process, fertilizers, biocides, soil remediation and treatment of metal poisoning. Additionally, chemical simulations also predicted that PDA is an efficient chelating agent for Ca incrustations removal, detergents and for pulp metal ions removal process.

Nanoparticles for the remediation of agrogenic contaminated soil and groundwater – a review

The wide spread use and strong reliance on both fertilizers and pesticides made of agrigenic pollution one of the major contemporary threats to environment and human health. Impacts on the environment vary from local effects, such as eutrophycation1, 2, loss of biodiversity and diminished ecosystem health3, to global effects, such as the aggravation of global warming2, 4 and ozone layer depletion5. The novelty of nanoremediation and its early successes, reported for various contexts, present the prospect for the development of relevant applications for agrigenic contaminants.

Nanoparticles based Permeable Reactive Barriers as an Eco-efficient Technology for nitrate remediation in soil and groundwater

The need to increase agricultural yield led, among others, to an increase in the consumption of nitrogen based fertilizers. As a consequence, there are excessive concentrations of nitrates, the most abundant of the reactive nitrogen (Nr) species, in several areas of the world. The demographic changes and projected population growth for the next decades, and the economic shifts which are already shaping the near future are powerful drivers for a further intensification in the use of fertilizers, with a predicted increase of the nitrogen loads in soils. Nitrate easily diffuses in the subsurface environments, portraying high mobility in soils. Moreover, the presence of high nitrate loads in water has the potential to cause an array of health dysfunctions, such as methemoglobinemia and several cancers. Permeable Reactive Barriers (PRB) placed strategically relatively to the nitrate source constitute an effective technology to tackle nitrate pollution. Ergo, PRB avoid various adverse impacts resulting from the displacement of reactive nitrogen downstream along water bodies. A four stages literature review was carried out in 34 databases. Initially, a set of pertinent key words were identified to perform the initial databases searches. Then, the synonyms of those initial key words were used to carry out a second set of databases searches. The third stage comprised the identification of other additional relevant terms from the research papers identified in the previous two stages. Again, databases searches were performed with this third set of key words. The final step consisted of the identification of relevant papers from the bibliography of the relevant papers identified in the previous three stages of the literature review process. The set of papers identified as relevant for in-depth analysis were assessed considering a set of relevant characterization variables.

Influence of Soil Chemistry and Plant Physiology in the Phytoremediation of Cu, Mn, and Zn

Different anthropogenic sources of metals can result from agricultural, industrial, military, mining and urban activities that contribute to environmental pollution. Plants can be grown for phytoremediation to remove or stabilize contaminants in water and soil. Copper (Cu), manganese (Mn) and zinc (Zn) are trace essential metals for plants, although their role in homeostasis in plants must be strictly regulated to avoid toxicity. In this review, we summarize the processes involved in the bioavailability, uptake, transport and storage of Cu, Mn and Zn in plants. The efficiency of phytoremediation depends on several factors including metal bioavailability and plant uptake, translocation and tolerance mechanisms. Soil parameters, such as clay fraction, organic matter content, oxidation state, pH, redox potential, aeration, and the presence of specific organisms, play fundamental roles in the uptake of trace essential metals. Key processes in the metal homeostasis network in plants have been identified. Membrane transporters involved in the acquisition, transport and storage of trace essential metals are reviewed. Recent advances in understanding the biochemical and molecular mechanisms of Cu, Mn and Zn hyperaccumulation are described. The use of plant-bacteria associations, plant-fungi associations and genetic engineering has opened a new range of opportunities to improve the efficiency of phytoremediation. The main directions for future research are proposed from the investigation of published results.

An evaluation of the direct agglutination test to diagnose "Mal de Caderas" disease

Se evaluó la utilidad de la prueba de aglutinación directa (AD) para diagnosticar el Mal de Caderas. Se emplearon cuarenta y cuatro sueros provenientes de dos lotes de equinos naturalmente infectados con el Trypanosoma evansi (Lote 1 y Lote 2). La AD fue positiva (Aglutinación > 1:512) en 13 de 16 equinos (81.2%), de los que se aislaron los parásitos. En doce de estos animales (92%) se detectaron IgM anti T. evansi mediante la AD realizada con 2-mercaptoetanol (AD + 2-ME). La AD fue positiva en 17 de los 28 equinos que resultaron negativos al diagnóstico parasitológico. Un tercer lote de cinco equinos infectados con T. evansi que presentaba elevados títulos de AD, fue tratado con Suramina Sódica (Nagano1-Bayer). La AD + 2-ME evidenció en cuatro animales que, gran parte de estos anticuerpos se ubicaban en la fracción IgM. Posterior al tratamiento farmacológico y, en concordancia de la negativización de la parasitemia, la detección de la IgM anti T. evansi no fue posible, mientras que los anticuerpos IgG continuaron detectándose a los doce meses post-tratamiento en valores de 1:512, en tres animales. Cincuenta sueros de equinos de una zona libre del parásito, que se emplearon como controles, fueron negativos a la AD. Se recomienda la utilización de la AD y AD + 2-ME para el uso de rutina en el diagnóstico del Mal de Caderas de los equinos, en combinación con otros métodos parasitológicos sensibles.

Gelatin particle indirect agglutination test for serodiagnosis of schistosomiasis: comparative study with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay

A new serological test, the gelatin particle agglutination test (GPAT), was used for the serodiagnosis of schistosomiasis mansoni. This technique showed the sensitivity (90.6%) and specificity (97.8%) close to those of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The GPAT can be easily and rapidly performed without specialized equipment, by using lyophilized antigen-coated gelatin particles. The test also seems to be useful for mass screening of Schistosoma infection in field conditions.

Bacterial antigen detection in cerebrospinal fluid by the latex agglutination test

Eighty purulent cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples from patients with clinical evidence of meningitis were studied using the Directigen latex agglutination (LA) kit to determine the presence of bacterial antigen in CSF. The results showed a better diagnostic performance of the LA test than bacterioscopy by Gram stain, culture and counterimmunoelectrophoresis (CIE), as far as Neisseria meningitidis groups B and C, and Haemophilus influenzae type b are concerned, and a better performance than bacterioscopy and culture considering Streptococcus pneumoniae. Comparison of the results with those of culture showed that the LA test had the highest sensitivity for the Neisseria meningitidis group C. Comparing the results with those of CIE, the highest levels of sensitivity were detected for N. meningitidis groups B and C. Regarding specificity, fair values were obtained for all organisms tested. The degree of K agreement when the LA test was compared with CIE exhibited better K indices of agreement for N. meningitidis groups B and C.