Productivity, labour cost and export adjustment: Detailed results for 24 EU countries. Bruegel Working Paper 2012/11, 12 July 2012

As a background document for Bruegel Policy Contribution 2012/11 ‘Compositional effects on productivity, labour cost and export adjustment’, this working paper presents detailed results for 24 EU countries on: • The sectoral changes in the economy; • The unit labour costs (ULC) based real effective exchange rate (REER) and its main components; • Export performance. • The ULC-REERs are calculated: • For the total economy, the business sector (excluding agriculture, construction and real estate activities), and some main sectors; • Using both actual aggregates and fixed-weight aggregates, as the latter are free from the impacts of compositional changes; • Against 30 trading partners and against three subsets of trading partners: euro-area, non-euro area EU, non-EU.

Floodplain environmental change during the Younger Dryas and Holocene in Northwest Europe: Insights from the lower Kennet Valley, south central England

Many lowland rivers across northwest Europe exhibit broadly similar behavioural responses to glacial-interglacial transitions and landscape development. Difficulties exist in assessing these, largely because the evidence from many rivers remains limited and fragmentary. Here we address this issue in the context of the river Kennet, a tributary of the Thames, since c. 13,000 cal BP. Some similarities with other rivers are present, suggesting that regional climatic shifts are important controls. The Kennet differs from the regional pattern in a number of ways. The rate of response to sudden climatic change, particularly at the start of the Holocene and also mid-Holocene forest clearance, appears very high. This may reflect abrupt shifts between two catchment scale hydrological states arising from contemporary climates, land use change and geology. Stadial hydrology is dominated by nival regimes, with limited winter infiltration and high spring and summer runoff. Under an interglacial climate, infiltration is more significant. The probable absence of permafrost in the catchment means that a lag between the two states due to its gradual decay is unlikely. Palaeoecology, supported by radiocarbon dates, suggests that, at the very start of the Holocene, a dramatic episode of fine sediment deposition across most of the valley floor occurred, lasting 500-1000 years. A phase of peat accumulation followed as mineral sediment supply declined. A further shift led to tufa deposition, initially in small pools, then across the whole floodplain area, with the river flowing through channels cut in tufa and experiencing repeated avulsion. Major floods, leaving large gravel bars that still form positive relief features on the floodplain, followed mid-Holocene floodplain stability. Prehistoric deforestation is likely to be the cause of this flooding, inducing a major environmental shift with significantly increased surface runoff. Since the Bronze Age, predominantly fine sediments were deposited along the valley with apparently stable channels and vertical floodplain accretion associated with soil erosion and less catastrophic flooding. The Kennet demonstrates that, while a general pattern of river behaviour over time, within a region, may be identifiable, individual rivers are likely to diverge from this. Consequently, it is essential to understand catchment controls, particularly the relative significance of surface and subsurface hydrology. (c) 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Terrestrial implications for the maritime geoarchaeological resource: A view from the Lower Palaeolithic

Stone tools and faunal remains have been recovered from the English Channel and the North Sea through trawling, dredging for aggregates, channel clearance, and coring. These finds highlight the potential for a maritime Lower Palaeolithic archaeological resource. It is proposed here that any Lower Palaeolithic artefacts, faunal remains, and sediments deposited in the maritime zone during dry, low-stand phases were once (and may still be) contextually similar to their counterparts in the terrestrial Lower Palaeolithic records of north-western Europe. Given these similarities, can interpretive models and analytical frameworks developed for terrestrial archaeology be profitably applied to an assessment of the potential value of any maritime resource? The terrestrial geoarchaeological resource for the Lower Palaeolithic is dominated by artefacts and ecofacts that have been fluvially reworked. The spatio-temporal resolution of these data varies from entire river valleys and marine isotope stages to river channel gravel bar surfaces and decadal timescales, thus supporting a variety of questions and approaches. However, the structure of the terrestrial resource also highlights two fundamental limitations in current maritime knowledge that can restrict the application of terrestrial approaches to any potential maritime resource: (i) how have the repetitive transgressions and regressions of the Middle and Late Pleistocene modified the terrace landforms and sediments associated with the river systems of the English Channel and southern North Sea basins?; and (ii) do the surviving submerged terrace landforms and fluvial sedimentary deposits support robust geochronological models, as is the case with the classical terrestrial terrace sequences? This paper highlights potential approaches to these questions, and concludes that the fluvial palaeogeography, Pleistocene fossils, and potential Lower Palaeolithic artefacts of the maritime geoarchaeological resource can be profitably investigated in future as derived, low-resolution data sets, facilitating questions of colonisation, occupation, demography, and material culture.

Later Pleistocene evolution of the Exe valley: a chronostratigraphic model of terrace formation and its implications for Palaeolithic archaeology

This paper presents the first systematic chronostratigraphic study of the river terraces of the Exe catchment in South West England and a new conceptual model for terrace formation in unglaciated basins with applicability to terrace staircase sequences elsewhere. The Exe catchment lay beyond the maximum extent of Pleistocene ice sheets and the drainage pattern evolved from the Tertiary to the Middle Pleistocene, by which time the major valley systems were in place and downcutting began to create a staircase of strath terraces. The higher terraces (8-6) typically exhibit altitudinal overlap or appear to be draped over the landscape, whilst the middle terraces show greater altitudinal separation and the lowest terraces are of a cut and fill form. The terrace deposits investigated in this study were deposited in cold phases of the glacial-interglacial Milankovitch climatic cycles with the lowest four being deposited in the Devensian Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) 4-2. A new cascade process-response model is proposed of basin terrace evolution in the Exe valley, which emphasises the role of lateral erosion in the creation of strath terraces and the reworking of inherited resistant lithological components down through the staircase. The resultant emergent valley topography and the reworking of artefacts along with gravel clasts, have important implications for the dating of hominin presence and the local landscapes they inhabited. Whilst the terrace chronology suggested here is still not as detailed as that for the Thames or the Solent System it does indicate a Middle Palaeolithic hominin presence in the region, probably prior to the late Wolstonian Complex or MIS 6. This supports existing data from cave sites in South West England.

Morphological and molecular characteristics of a new species of Pasteuria parasitic on Meloidogyne ardenensis

A species of the hyper-parasitic bacterium Pasteuria was isolated from the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne ardenensis infecting the roots of ash (Fraxinus excelsior). It is morphologically different from some other Pasteuria pathogens of nematodes in that the spores lack a basal ring on the ventral side of the spore and have a unique clumping nature. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) showed that the clumps of spores are not random aggregates but result from the disintegration of the suicide cells of the thalli. Sporulation within each vegetative mycelium was shown to be asynchronous. In addition to the novel morphological features 16S rRNA sequence analysis showed this to be a new species of Pasteuria which we have called P. hartismeri. Spores of P. hartismeri attach to juveniles of root-knot nematodes infecting a wide range of plants such as mint (Meloidogyne hapla), rye grass (unidentified Meloidogyne sp.) and potato (Meloidogyne fallax). (c) 2007 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Microbe-associated molecular pattern (MAMP) signatures, synergy, size and charge: influences on perception or mobility and host defence responses

Triggering of defences by microbes has mainly been investigated using single elicitors or microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs), but MAMPs are released in planta as complex mixtures together with endogenous oligogalacturonan (OGA) elicitor. We investigated the early responses in Arabidopsis of calcium influx and oxidative burst induced by non-saturating concentrations of bacterial MAMPs, used singly and in combination: flagellin peptide (flg22), elongation factor peptide (elf18), peptidoglycan (PGN) and component muropeptides, lipo-oligosaccharide (LOS) and core oligosaccharides. This revealed that some MAMPs have additive (e.g. flg22 with elf18) and even synergistic (flg22 and LOS) effects, whereas others mutually interfere (flg22 with OGA). OGA suppression of flg22-induced defences was not a result of the interference with the binding of flg22 to its receptor flagellin-sensitive 2 (FLS2). MAMPs induce different calcium influx signatures, but these are concentration dependent and unlikely to explain the differential induction of defence genes [pathogenesis-related gene 1 (PR1), plant defensin gene 1.2 (PDF1.2) and phenylalanine ammonia lyase gene 1 (PAL1)] by flg22, elf18 and OGA. The peptide MAMPs are potent elicitors at subnanomolar levels, whereas PGN and LOS at high concentrations induce low and late host responses. This difference might be a result of the restricted access by plant cell walls of MAMPs to their putative cellular receptors. flg22 is restricted by ionic effects, yet rapidly permeates a cell wall matrix, whereas LOS, which forms supramolecular aggregates, is severely constrained, presumably by molecular sieving. Thus, MAMPs can interact with each other, whether directly or indirectly, and with the host wall matrix. These phenomena, which have not been considered in detail previously, are likely to influence the speed, magnitude, versatility and composition of plant defences.

Friends or relatives? Phylogenetics and species delimitation in the controversial European orchid Genus ophrys

Background and Aims Highly variable, yet possibly convergent, morphology and lack of sequence variation have severely hindered production of a robust phylogenetic framework for the genus Ophrys. The aim of this study is to produce this framework as a basis for more rigorous species delimitation and conservation recommendations. Methods Nuclear and plastid DNA sequencing and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) were performed on 85 accessions of Ophrys, spanning the full range of species aggregates currently recognized. Data were analysed using a combination of parsimony and Bayesian tree-building techniques and by principal coordinates analysis. Key Results Complementary phylogenetic analyses and ordinations using nuclear, plastid and AFLP datasets identify ten genetically distinct groups (six robust) within the genus that may in turn be grouped into three sections (treated as subgenera by some authors). Additionally, genetic evidence is provided for a close relationship between the O. tenthredinifera, O. bombyliflora and O. speculum groups. The combination of these analytical techniques provides new insights into Ophrys systematics, notably recognition of the novel O. umbilicata group. Conclusions Heterogeneous copies of the nuclear ITS region show that some putative Ophrys species arose through hybridization rather than divergent speciation. The supposedly highly specific pseudocopulatory pollination syndrome of Ophrys is demonstrably 'leaky', suggesting that the genus has been substantially over-divided at the species level.

Platelet adhesion to collagen and collagen-related peptide under flow. Roles of the alpha(2)beta(1) integrin, GPVI, and Src tyrosine kinases

Objective - Platelet stimulation by collagen and collagen-related peptides (CRPs) is associated with activation of protein tyrosine kinases. In the present study, we investigated the role of Src family tyrosine kinases in the initial adhesion events of human platelets to collagen and cross-linked CRP. Methods and Results - Under arterial flow conditions, a glycoprotein VI - specific substrate, cross-linked CRP, caused rapid (<2 second) platelet retention and protein tyrosine phosphorylation that were markedly decreased by the Src family kinase inhibitor pyrozolopyrimidine (PP2) or by aggregation inhibitor GRGDSP. CRP-induced platelet retention was transient, and 90% of single platelets or aggregates detached within seconds. PP2, although having no effect on RGD peptide-binding to CRP, completely blocked aggregation and tyrosine phosphorylation of Syk and phospholipase Cγ2 (PLCγ2). In contrast, PP2 weakly (<30%) suppressed firm adhesion to collagen mediated primarily by the alpha(2)beta(1) integrin. Although PP2 prevented activation of Syk and PLCgamma2 in collagen-adherent platelets, tyrosine phosphorylation of several unidentified protein bands persisted, as did autophosphorylation of pp125(FAK). Conclusions - These findings indicate that activation of Src-tyrosine kinases Syk and PLCgamma2 is not required for the initial stable attachment of human platelets to collagen and for FAK autophosphorylation. However, Src-tyrosine kinases are critical for glycoprotein VI - mediated signaling leading to platelet aggregation.

Effect of fluid mechanical stresses and plasma constituents on aggregation of LDL

LDL aggregates when exposed to even moderate fluid mechanical stresses in the laboratory, yet its half-life in the circulation is 2-3 days, implying that little aggregation occurs. LDL may be protected from aggregation in vivo by components of plasma, or by a qualitative difference in flows. Previous studies have shown that HDL and albumin inhibit the aggregation induced by vortexing. Using a more reproducible method of inducing aggregation and assessing aggregation both spectrophotometrically and by sedimentation techniques, we showed that at physiological concentrations, albumin is the more effective inhibitor, and that aggregation is substantially but not completely inhibited in plasma. Heat denatured and fatty-acid-stripped albumin were more effective inhibitors than normal albumin, supporting the idea that hydrophobic interactions are involved. Aggregation of LDL in a model reproducing several aspects of flow in the circulation was 200-fold slower, but was still inhibited by HDL and albumin, suggesting similar mechanisms are involved. Within the sensitivity of our technique, LDL aggregation did not occur in plasma exposed to these flows.jlr Thus, as a result of the characteristics of blood flow and the inhibitory effects of plasma components, particularly albumin, LDL aggregation is unlikely to occur within the circulation.

Osmotic pressure and aggregate shape in BSA/poly (ethylene glycol)-lipid/Dextran solutions

In this work we study the colloidal osmotic pressure (COP) and aggregate shape in phosphate saline buffer solutions (PH 7.4) containing bovine serum albumin (BSA), poly(ethylene glycol) lipid (PEG(2000)-PE) and Dextran (Dx). Dx was added to the BSA/PEG(2000)-PE system in order to increase the COP of the solution to levels comparable to the COP of healthy adults, with the aim of using the solution as a blood COP regulator. Dynamic light scattering and small angle X-ray scattering results shown the formation of BSA/PEG(2000)-PE/Dx aggregates in the solution. Osmometry results shown that the addition of Dx to the BSA/PE2000-PE system could successfully increase the COP, through the formation of BSA/PEG(2000)-PE/Dx aggregates. The BSA/PEG(2000)-PE/Dx solutions attained COP= 15 mm Hg, representing 60% of COP measured for healthy adults. (c) 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Syntheses and spectroscopy of diamine complexes of Zn(II) and Cd(II) ethylxanthates and the molecular structures of [M(S2COEt)(2)TMEDA]: formation of US nanoparticles from [Cd(S2COEt)(2)] and [Cd(S2COEt)(2)TMEDA]

The zinc and cadmium ethylxanthate complexes of N,N,N',N'-tetramethylethylenediamine (TMEDA), [M(S2COEt)(2)TMEDA], were synthesized and characterized with infrared, H-1 and C-13 NMR spectroscopy, mass spectrometry and X-ray crystallography. Whereas the cadmium complex has a six-coordinate {CdS4N2} centre with bidentate xanthate ligands, the zinc complex contains four coordinate {ZnS2N2} zinc with two monodentate xanthate groups. The cadmium species [Cd(S2COEt)(2)(diamine)] (where diamine = N,N-dimethylethylenediamine or N,N'-diisopropylethylenediamine) were also synthesized. The surfactant-assisted formation of nanoparticles from [Cd(S2COEt)(2)] and [Cd(S2COEt)(2)TMEDA] was studied with TEM, XRD and XRF techniques. From [Cd(S2COEt)(2)], spherical nanoparticle aggregates 140-200 nm in diameter were obtained but from [Cd(S2COEt)(2)TMEDA], single nanoparticles were produced with estimated diameters in the range of 4-7 nm and almost no aggregation. (C) 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Ditopic hexaazamacrocycles containing pyridine: synthesis, protonation and complexation studies

Structural studies of metal complexes of five ditopic hexaazamacrocycles containing two pyridine rings ([n] py(2)N(4) n = 18, 20, 22, 24 and 26) have been carried out. The synthesis of macrocycles [22]- to [26]- py(2)N(4) are also reported. The protonation constants of the last three compounds and the stability constants of their complexes with Ni2+, Cu2+, Zn2+, and Pb2+ were determined at 25 degreesC in 0.10 mol dm(-3) KNO3 in aqueous solution. Our results with [22] py(2)N(4) show significant differences from those described previously, while [24] py(2)N(4) has not been studied before and [ 26] py2N4 is a new compound. Mononuclear and dinuclear complexes of the divalent metal ions studied with [ 22]- to [26]- py(2)N(4) were found in solution. The stability constants for the ML complexes of the three ligands follow the Irving - Williams order: NiL2+ < CuL2+ >> ZnL2+ > PbL2+, however for the dinuclear complexes the values for Pb2+ complexes are higher than the corresponding values for the Ni2+ and the Zn2+ complexes. The X-ray single crystal structures of the supramolecular aggregates [Cu-2([20] py(2)N(4))(H2O)(4)][Cu(H2O)(6)](SO4)(3) . 3H(2)O ( 1) and [Cu-2([20] py(2)N(4))(CH3CN)(4)][Ni([20] py(2)N(4))](2)(ClO4)(8) . H2O (2), which are composed of homodinuclear [Cu-2([20] py(2)N(4)])(H2O)(4)](4+) ( 1a) and [Cu-2([20] py(2)N(4)])(CH3CN))(4)](4+) (2a), and mononuclear species, [Cu(H2O)(6)](2+) (1b) and [Ni([20] py(2)N(4))](2+) ( 2b), respectively, assembled by an extensive network of hydrogen bonds, are also reported. In both homodinuclear complexes the copper centres are located at the end of the macrocycle and display distorted square pyramidal coordination environments with the basal plane defined by three consecutive nitrogen donors and one solvent molecule, water in 1a and acetonitrile in 2a. The macrocycle adopts a concertina-type conformation leading to the formation of macrocyclic cavities with the two copper centres separated by intramolecular distances of 5.526(1) and 5.508(7) Angstrom in 1a and 2a, respectively. The mononuclear complex [Ni([20] py(2)N(4)])](2+) displays a distorted octahedral co-ordination environment with the macrocycle wrapping the metal centre in a helical shape. EPR spectroscopy of the copper complexes indicated the presence of mono- and dinuclear species.

A novel technique for differentiation of proteins in the development of acid gel structure from control and heat treated milk using confocal scanning laser microscopy

The incorporation of caseins and whey proteins into acid gels produced from unheated and heat treated skimmed milk was studied by confocal scanning laser microscopy (CSLM) using fluorescent labelled proteins. Bovine casein micelles were labelled using Alexa Fluor 594, while whey proteins were labelled using Alexa Fluor 488. Samples of the labelled protein solutions were introduced into aliquots of pasteurised skim milk, and skim milk heated to 90 degrees C for 2 min and 95 degrees C for 8 min. The milk was acidified at 40 degrees C to a final pH of 4.4 using 20 g gluconodelta-lactone/l (GDL). The formation of gels was observed with CSLM at two wavelengths (488 nm and 594 nm), and also by visual and rheological methods. In the control milk, as pH decreased distinct casein aggregates appeared, and as further pH reduction occurred, the whey proteins could be seen to coat the casein aggregates. With the heated milks, the gel structure was formed of continuous strands consisting of both casein and whey protein. The formation of the gel network was correlated with an increase in the elastic modulus for all three treatments, in relation to the severity of heat treatment. This model system allows the separate observation of the caseins and whey proteins, and the study of the interactions between the two protein fractions during the formation of the acid gel structure, on a real-time basis. The system could therefore be a valuable tool in the study of structure formation in yoghurt and other dairy protein systems.

The effects of maternal social phobia on mother-infant interactions and infant social responsiveness

Background: Social phobia aggregates in families. The genetic contribution to intergenerational transmission is modest, and parenting is considered important. Research on the effects of social phobia on parenting has been subject to problems of small sample size, heterogeneity of samples and lack of specificity of observational frameworks. We addressed these problems in the current study.Methods: We assessed mothers with social phobia (N = 84) and control mothers (N = 89) at 10 weeks in face-to-face interactions with their infants, and during a social challenge, namely, engaging with a stranger. We also assessed mothers with generalised anxiety disorder (GAD) (N = 50). We examined the contribution to infant social responsiveness of early infant characteristics (neonatal irritability), as well as maternal behaviour. Results: Mothers with social phobia were no less sensitive to their infants during face-to-face interactions than control mothers, but when interacting with the stranger they appeared more anxious, engaged less with the stranger themselves, and were less encouraging of the infant's interaction with the stranger; infants of index mothers also showed reduced social responsiveness to the stranger. These differences did not apply to mothers with GAD and their infants. Regression analyses showed that the reduction in social responsiveness in infants of mothers with social phobia was predicted by neonatal irritability and the degree to which the mother encouraged the infant to interact with the stranger.Conclusions: Mothers with social phobia show specific parenting difficulties, and their infants show early signs of reduced social responsiveness that are related to both individual infant differences and a lack of maternal encouragement to engage in social interactions.