A Framework for Detecting Glaucomatous Progression in the Optic Nerve Head of an Eye Using Proper Orthogonal Decomposition

Glaucoma is the second leading cause of blindness worldwide. Often, the optic nerve head (ONH) glaucomatous damage and ONH changes occur prior to visual field loss and are observable in vivo. Thus, digital image analysis is a promising choice for detecting the onset and/or progression of glaucoma. In this paper, we present a new framework for detecting glaucomatous changes in the ONH of an eye using the method of proper orthogonal decomposition (POD). A baseline topograph subspace was constructed for each eye to describe the structure of the ONH of the eye at a reference/baseline condition using POD. Any glaucomatous changes in the ONH of the eye present during a follow-up exam were estimated by comparing the follow-up ONH topography with its baseline topograph subspace representation. Image correspondence measures of L-1-norm and L-2-norm, correlation, and image Euclidean distance (IMED) were used to quantify the ONH changes. An ONH topographic library built from the Louisiana State University Experimental Glaucoma study was used to evaluate the performance of the proposed method. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curves (AUCs) was used to compare the diagnostic performance of the POD-induced parameters with the parameters of the topographic change analysis (TCA) method. The IMED and L-2-norm parameters in the POD framework provided the highest AUC of 0.94 at 10 degrees. field of imaging and 0.91 at 15 degrees. field of imaging compared to the TCA parameters with an AUC of 0.86 and 0.88, respectively. The proposed POD framework captures the instrument measurement variability and inherent structure variability and shows promise for improving our ability to detect glaucomatous change over time in glaucoma management.

Probiotic Bacillus amyloliquefaciens Strain H57 Improves the Performance of Pregnant and Lactating Ewes Fed a Diet Based on Palm Kernel Meal

Probiotic supplements are single or mixed strain cultures of live microorganisms that benefit the host by improving the properties of the indigenous microflora (Seo et al 2010). In a pilot study at the University of Queensland, Norton et al (2008) found that Bacillus amyloliquefaciens Strain H57 (H57), primarily investigated as an inoculum to make high-quality hay, improved feed intake and nitrogen utilisation over several weeks in pregnant ewes. The purpose of the following study was to further challenge the potential of H57 -to show it survives the steam-pelleting process, and that it improves the performance of ewes fed pellets based on an agro-industrial by-product with a reputation for poor palatability, palm kernel meal (PKM), (McNeill 2013). Thirty-two first-parity White Dorper ewes (day 37 of pregnancy, mean liveweight = 47.3 kg, mean age = 15 months) were inducted into individual pens in the animal house at the University of Queensland, Gatton. They were adjusted onto PKM-based pellets (g/kg drymatter (DM): PKM, 408; sorghum, 430; chick pea hulls, 103; minerals and vitamins; Crude protein, 128; ME: 11.1MJ/kg DM) until day 89 of pregnancy and thereafter fed a predominately pelleted diet incorporating with or without H57 spores (10 9 colony forming units (cfu)/kg pellet, as fed), plus 100g/ewe/day oaten chaff, until day 7 of lactation. From day 7 to 20 of lactation the pelleted component of the diet was steadily reduced to be replaced by a 50:50 mix of lucerne: oaten chaff, fed ad libitum, plus 100g/ewe/day of ground sorghum grain with or without H57 (10 9 cfu/ewe/day). The period of adjustment in pregnancy (day 37-89) extended beyond expectations due to some evidence of mild ruminal acidosis after some initially high intakes that were followed by low intakes. During that time the diet was modified, in an attempt to improve palatability, by the addition of oaten chaff and the removal of an acidifying agent (NH4Cl) that was added initially to reduce the risk of urinary calculi. Eight ewes were removed due to inappetence, leaving 24 ewes to start the trial at day 90 of pregnancy. From day 90 of pregnancy until day 63 of lactation, liveweights of the ewes and their lambs were determined weekly and at parturition. Feed intakes of the ewes were determined weekly. Once lambing began, 1 ewe was removed as it gave birth to twin lambs (whereas the rest gave birth to a single lamb), 4 due to the loss of their lambs (2 to dystocia), and 1 due to copper toxicity. The PKM pellets were suspected to be the cause of the copper toxicity and so were removed in early lactation. Hence, the final statistical analysis using STATISTICA 8 (Repeated measures ANOVA for feed intake, One-way ANOVA for liveweight change and birth weight) was completed on 23 ewes for the pregnancy period (n = 11 fed H57; n = 12 control), and 18 ewes or lambs for the lactation period (n = 8 fed H57; n = 10 control). From day 90 of pregnancy until parturition the H57 supplemented ewes ate 17 more DM (g/day: 1041 vs 889, sed = 42.4, P = 0.04) and gained more liveweight (g/day: 193 vs 24.0, sed = 25.4, P = 0.0002), but produced lambs with a similar birthweight (kg: 4.18 vs 3.99, sed = 0.19, P = 0.54). Over the 63 days of lactation the H57 ewes ate similar amounts of DM but grew slower than the control ewes (g/day: 1.5 vs 97.0, sed = 21.7, P = 0.012). The lambs of the H57 ewes grew faster than those of the control ewes for the first 21 days of lactation (g/day: 356 vs 265, sed = 16.5, P = 0.006). These data support the findings of Norton et al (2008) and Kritas et al (2006) that certain Bacillus spp. supplements can improve the performance of pregnant and lactating ewes. In the current study we particularly highlighted the capacity of H57 to stimulate immature ewes to continue to grow maternal tissue through pregnancy, possibly through an enhanced appetite, which appeared then to stimulate a greater capacity to partition nutrients to their lambs through milk, at least for the first few weeks of lactation, a critical time for optimising lamb survival. To conclude, H57 can survive the steam pelleting process to improve feed intake and maternal liveweight gain in late pregnancy, and performance in early lactation, of first-parity ewes fed a diet based on PKM.

Determination of the kallikrein-related peptidase 7 degradome and Transciptome in ovarian cancer

Ovarian cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related death in women, and the need for curative treatments is urgent. This study characterised an enzyme associated with the most lethal form of ovarian cancer, showing this enzyme to be a promising therapeutic target. Fifteen novel protein targets and key signalling pathways were determined to be regulated by this enzyme, kallikrein-related peptidase 7, in the ovarian tumour microenvironment, highlighting its involvement in cancer progression. Inhibition of this enzyme may be a useful therapeutic option to improve the life expectancy of women suffering from this cancer.

A retrospective study of Babesia macropus associated with morbidity and mortality in eastern grey kangaroos (Macropus giganteus) and agile wallabies (Macropus agilis)

This is a retrospective study of 38 cases of infection by Babesia macropus, associated with a syndrome of anaemia and debility in hand-reared or free-ranging juvenile eastern grey kangaroos (Macropus giganteus) from coastal New South Wales and south-eastern Queensland between 1995 and 2013. Infection with B. macropus is recorded for the first time in agile wallabies (Macropus agilis) from far north Queensland. Animals in which B. macropus infection was considered to be the primary cause of morbidity had marked anaemia, lethargy and neurological signs, and often died. In these cases, parasitised erythrocytes were few or undetectable in peripheral blood samples but were sequestered in large numbers within small vessels of visceral organs, particularly in the kidney and brain, associated with distinctive clusters of extraerythrocytic organisms. Initial identification of this piroplasm in peripheral blood smears and in tissue impression smears and histological sections was confirmed using transmission electron microscopy and molecular analysis. Samples of kidney, brain or blood were tested using PCR and DNA sequencing of the 18S ribosomal RNA and heat shock protein 70 gene using primers specific for piroplasms. The piroplasm detected in these samples had 100 sequence identity in the 18S rRNA region with the recently described Babesia macropus in two eastern grey kangaroos from New South Wales and Queensland, and a high degree of similarity to an unnamed Babesia sp. recently detected in three woylies (Bettongia penicillata ogilbyi) in Western Australia.

The Occurrence and Toxicity of Indospicine to Grazing Animals

Indospicine is a non-proteinogenic amino acid which occurs in Indigofera species with widespread prevalence in grazing pastures across tropical Africa, Asia, Australia, and the Americas. It accumulates in the tissues of grazing livestock after ingestion of Indigofera. It is a competitive inhibitor of arginase and causes both liver degeneration and abortion. Indospicine hepatoxicity occurs universally across animal species but the degree varies considerably between species, with dogs being particularly sensitive. The magnitude of canine sensitivity is such that ingestion of naturally indospicine-contaminated horse and camel meat has caused secondary poisoning of dogs, raising significant industry concern. Indospicine impacts on the health and production of grazing animals per se has been less widely documented. Livestock grazing Indigofera have a chronic and cumulative exposure to this toxin, with such exposure experimentally shown to induce both hepatotoxicity and embryo-lethal effects in cattle and sheep. In extensive pasture systems, where animals are not closely monitored, the resultant toxicosis may well occur after prolonged exposure but either be undetected, or even if detected not be attributable to a particular cause. Indospicine should be considered as a possible cause of animal poor performance, particularly reduced weight gain or reproductive losses, in pastures where Indigofera are prevalent.

Epidemiology and genetic diversity of Tobacco streak virus and related subgroup 1 ilarviruses

A quarter of Australia’s sunflower production is from the central highlands region of Queensland and is currently worth six million dollars ($AUD) annually. From the early 2000s a severe necrosis disorder of unknown aetiology was affecting large areas of sunflower crops in central Queensland, leading to annual losses of up to 20%. Other crops such as mung bean and cotton were also affected. This PhD study was undertaken to determine if the causal agent of the necrosis disorder was of viral origin and, if so, to characterise its genetic diversity, biology and disease cycle, and to develop effective control strategies. The research described in this thesis identified Tobacco streak virus (TSV; genus Ilarvirus, family Bromoviridae) as the causal agent of the previously unidentified necrosis disorder of sunflower in central Queensland. TSV was also the cause of commonly found diseases in a range of other crops in the same region including cotton, chickpea and mung bean. This was the first report from Australia of natural field infections of TSV from these four crops. TSV strains have previously been reported from other regions of Australia in several hosts based on serological and host range studies. In order to determine the relatedness of previously reported TSV strains with TSV from central Queensland, we characterised the genetic diversity of the known TSV strains from Australia. We identified two genetically distinct TSV strains from central Queensland and named them based on their major alternative hosts, TSV-parthenium from Parthenium hysterophorus and TSV-crownbeard from Verbesina encelioides. They share only 81 % total-genome nucleotide sequence identity. In addition to TSV-parthenium and TSV-crownbeard from central Queensland, we also described the complete genomes of two other ilarvirus species. This proved that previously reported TSV strains, TSV-S isolated from strawberry and TSV-Ag from Ageratum houstonianum, were actually the first record of Strawberry necrotic shock virus from Australia, and a new subgroup 1 ilarvirus, Ageratum latent virus. Our results confirmed that the TSV strains found in central Queensland were not related to previously described strains from Australia and may represent new incursions. This is the first report of the genetic diversity within subgroup 1 ilarviruses from Australia. Based on field observations we hypothesised that parthenium and crownbeard were acting as symptomless hosts of TSV-parthenium and TSV-crownbeard, respectively. We developed strain-specific multiplex PCRs for the three RNA segments to accurately characterise the range of naturally infected hosts across central Queensland. Results described in this thesis show compelling evidence that parthenium and crownbeard are the major (symptomless) alternative hosts of TSV-parthenium and TSV-crownbeard. While both TSV strains had wide natural host ranges, the geographical distribution of each strain was closely associated with the respective distribution of their major alternative hosts. Both TSV strains were commonly found across large areas of central Queensland, but we only found strong evidence for the TSV-parthenium strain being associated with major disease outbreaks in nearby crops. The findings from this study demonstrate that both TSV-parthenium and TSV-crownbeard have similar life cycles but some critical differences. We found both TSV strains to be highly seed transmitted from their respective major alternative hosts from naturally infected mother plants and survived in seed for more than 2 years. We conclusively demonstrated that both TSV strains were readily transmitted via virus-infected pollen taken from the major alternative hosts. This transmission was facilitated by the most commonly collected thrips species, Frankliniella schultzei and Microcephalothrips abdominalis. These results illustrate the importance of seed transmission and efficient thrips vector species for the effective survival of these TSV strains in an often harsh environment and enables the rapid development of TSV disease epidemics in surrounding crops. Results from field surveys and inoculation tests indicate that parthenium is a poor host of TSV-crownbeard. By contrast, crownbeard was naturally infected by, and an experimental host of TSV-parthenium. However, this infection combination resulted in non-viable crownbeard seed. These differences appear to be an effective biological barrier that largely restricts these two TSV strains to their respective major alternative hosts. Based on our field observations we hypothesised that there were differences in relative tolerance to TSV infection between different sunflower hybrids and that seasonal variation in disease levels was related to rainfall in the critical early crop stage. Results from our field trials conducted over multiple years conclusively demonstrated significant differences in tolerance to natural infections of TSV-parthenium in a wide range of sunflower hybrids. Glasshouse tests indicate the resistance to TSV-parthenium identified in the sunflower hybrids is also likely to be effective against TSV-crownbeard. We found a significant negative association between TSV disease incidence in sunflowers and accumulated rainfall in the months of March and April with increasing rainfall resulting in reduced levels of disease. Our results indicate that the use of tolerant sunflower germplasm will be a critical strategy to minimise the risk of TSV epidemics in sunflower.

Genetic diversity and epidemiology of Tobacco streak virus and related subgroup 1 Ilarviruses

A quarter of Australia’s sunflower production is from the central highlands region of Queensland and is currently worth six million dollars ($AUD) annually. From the early 2000s a severe necrosis disorder of unknown aetiology was affecting large areas of sunflower crops in central Queensland, leading to annual losses of up to 20%. Other crops such as mung bean and cotton were also affected. This PhD study was undertaken to determine if the causal agent of the necrosis disorder was of viral origin and, if so, to characterise its genetic diversity, biology and disease cycle, and to develop effective control strategies. The research described in this thesis identified Tobacco streak virus (TSV; genus Ilarvirus, family Bromoviridae) as the causal agent of the previously unidentified necrosis disorder of sunflower in central Queensland. TSV was also the cause of commonly found diseases in a range of other crops in the same region including cotton, chickpea and mung bean. This was the first report from Australia of natural field infections of TSV from these four crops. TSV strains have previously been reported from other regions of Australia in several hosts based on serological and host range studies. In order to determine the relatedness of previously reported TSV strains with TSV from central Queensland, we characterised the genetic diversity of the known TSV strains from Australia. We identified two genetically distinct TSV strains from central Queensland and named them based on their major alternative hosts, TSV-parthenium from Parthenium hysterophorus and TSV-crownbeard from Verbesina encelioides. They share only 81 % total-genome nucleotide sequence identity. In addition to TSV-parthenium and TSV-crownbeard from central Queensland, we also described the complete genomes of two other ilarvirus species. This proved that previously reported TSV strains, TSV-S isolated from strawberry and TSV-Ag from Ageratum houstonianum, were actually the first record of Strawberry necrotic shock virus from Australia, and a new subgroup 1 ilarvirus, Ageratum latent virus. Our results confirmed that the TSV strains found in central Queensland were not related to previously described strains from Australia and may represent new incursions. This is the first report of the genetic diversity within subgroup 1 ilarviruses from Australia. Based on field observations we hypothesised that parthenium and crownbeard were acting as symptomless hosts of TSV-parthenium and TSV-crownbeard, respectively. We developed strain-specific multiplex PCRs for the three RNA segments to accurately characterise the range of naturally infected hosts across central Queensland. Results described in this thesis show compelling evidence that parthenium and crownbeard are the major (symptomless) alternative hosts of TSV-parthenium and TSV-crownbeard. While both TSV strains had wide natural host ranges, the geographical distribution of each strain was closely associated with the respective distribution of their major alternative hosts. Both TSV strains were commonly found across large areas of central Queensland, but we only found strong evidence for the TSV-parthenium strain being associated with major disease outbreaks in nearby crops. The findings from this study demonstrate that both TSV-parthenium and TSV-crownbeard have similar life cycles but some critical differences. We found both TSV strains to be highly seed transmitted from their respective major alternative hosts from naturally infected mother plants and survived in seed for more than 2 years. We conclusively demonstrated that both TSV strains were readily transmitted via virus-infected pollen taken from the major alternative hosts. This transmission was facilitated by the most commonly collected thrips species, Frankliniella schultzei and Microcephalothrips abdominalis. These results illustrate the importance of seed transmission and efficient thrips vector species for the effective survival of these TSV strains in an often harsh environment and enables the rapid development of TSV disease epidemics in surrounding crops. Results from field surveys and inoculation tests indicate that parthenium is a poor host of TSV-crownbeard. By contrast, crownbeard was naturally infected by, and an experimental host of TSV-parthenium. However, this infection combination resulted in non-viable crownbeard seed. These differences appear to be an effective biological barrier that largely restricts these two TSV strains to their respective major alternative hosts. Based on our field observations we hypothesised that there were differences in relative tolerance to TSV infection between different sunflower hybrids and that seasonal variation in disease levels was related to rainfall in the critical early crop stage. Results from our field trials conducted over multiple years conclusively demonstrated significant differences in tolerance to natural infections of TSV-parthenium in a wide range of sunflower hybrids. Glasshouse tests indicate the resistance to TSV-parthenium identified in the sunflower hybrids is also likely to be effective against TSV-crownbeard. We found a significant negative association between TSV disease incidence in sunflowers and accumulated rainfall in the months of March and April with increasing rainfall resulting in reduced levels of disease. Our results indicate that the use of tolerant sunflower germplasm will be a critical strategy to minimise the risk of TSV epidemics in sunflower.

Management of mango decline using thiophanate methyl and plant activators through a macro infusion system

Mango decline disease has become a major cause of tree losses of about 7-10% in all mango growing areas of Pakistan. This study evaluated the effectiveness of plant activators used in conjunction with the fungicide thiophanate methyl in managing mango decline disease. The study was conducted in the Multan district using trees rated as 1-2 on a decline severity scale and displaying symptoms of gummosis, bark splitting, canker formation, and leaf drooping. Experimental treatments included three plant activators viz. Bion, Planofix, and Root king in conjunction with or without thiophanate methyl, delivered through a macro infusion system. This was the first time a macro infusion system had been used in Pakistan. The injection system delivered the fungicide/activator mixture into the tree trunk under pressure through a series of holes bored into the xylem tissue. Tree disease symptoms were recorded fortnightly to assess the treatment efficacy. After three months, thiophanate methyl, in combination with Bion, was found to be the most effective treatment with trees displaying no apparent disease symptoms. When thiophanate methyl was used alone, or in combination with Root king and Planofix, the symptoms of bark splitting and gummosis persisted.

A role to play: Investigating concepts of masculinity in Australia through theatre

Health professionals, academics, social commentators and the media are increasingly sending the same message – Australian men are in crisis. This message has been supported by documented rises in alcoholism, violence, depression, suicide and crime amongst men in Australia. A major cause of this crisis, it can be argued, is an over-reliance on the out-dated and limited model of hegemonic masculinity that all men are encouraged to imitate in their own behaviour. This paper, as part of a larger study, explores representations of masculinity in selected works of contemporary Australian theatre in order to investigate the concept of hegemonic masculinity and any influence it may have on the perceived ‘crisis of masculinity’. Theatre is but one of the artistic modes that can be used to investigate masculinity and issues associated with identity. The Australia Council for the Arts recognises theatre, along with literature, dance, film, television, inter-arts, music and visual arts, as critical to the understanding and expression of Australian culture and identity. Theatre has been chosen in this instance because of the opportunities available to this study for direct access to specific theatre performances and creators and, also, because of the researcher’s experience, as a theatre director, with the dramatic arts. Through interviews with writers, directors and actors, combined with the analysis of scripts, academic writings, reviews, articles, programmes, play rehearsals and workshops, this research utilises theatre as a medium to explore masculinity in Australia.

IWGDF guidance on the prevention of foot ulcers in at-risk patients with diabetes

Recommendations - 1 To identify a person with diabetes at risk for foot ulceration, examine the feet annually to seek evidence for signs or symptoms of peripheral neuropathy and peripheral artery disease. (GRADE strength of recommendation: strong; Quality of evidence: low) - 2 In a person with diabetes who has peripheral neuropathy, screen for a history of foot ulceration or lower-extremity amputation, peripheral artery disease, foot deformity, pre-ulcerative signs on the foot, poor foot hygiene and ill-fitting or inadequate footwear. (Strong; Low) - 3 Treat any pre-ulcerative sign on the foot of a patient with diabetes. This includes removing callus, protecting blisters and draining when necessary, treating ingrown or thickened toe nails, treating haemorrhage when necessary and prescribing antifungal treatment for fungal infections. (Strong; Low) - 4 To protect their feet, instruct an at-risk patient with diabetes not to walk barefoot, in socks only, or in thin-soled standard slippers, whether at home or when outside. (Strong; Low) - 5 Instruct an at-risk patient with diabetes to daily inspect their feet and the inside of their shoes, daily wash their feet (with careful drying particularly between the toes), avoid using chemical agents or plasters to remove callus or corns, use emollients to lubricate dry skin and cut toe nails straight across. (Weak; Low) - 6 Instruct an at-risk patient with diabetes to wear properly fitting footwear to prevent a first foot ulcer, either plantar or non-plantar, or a recurrent non-plantar foot ulcer. When a foot deformity or a pre-ulcerative sign is present, consider prescribing therapeutic shoes, custom-made insoles or toe orthosis. (Strong; Low) - 7 To prevent a recurrent plantar foot ulcer in an at-risk patient with diabetes, prescribe therapeutic footwear that has a demonstrated plantar pressure-relieving effect during walking (i.e. 30% relief compared with plantar pressure in standard of care therapeutic footwear) and encourage the patient to wear this footwear. (Strong; Moderate) - 8 To prevent a first foot ulcer in an at-risk patient with diabetes, provide education aimed at improving foot care knowledge and behaviour, as well as encouraging the patient to adhere to this foot care advice. (Weak; Low) - 9 To prevent a recurrent foot ulcer in an at-risk patient with diabetes, provide integrated foot care, which includes professional foot treatment, adequate footwear and education. This should be repeated or re-evaluated once every 1 to 3 months as necessary. (Strong; Low) - 10 Instruct a high-risk patient with diabetes to monitor foot skin temperature at home to prevent a first or recurrent plantar foot ulcer. This aims at identifying the early signs of inflammation, followed by action taken by the patient and care provider to resolve the cause of inflammation. (Weak; Moderate) - 11 Consider digital flexor tenotomy to prevent a toe ulcer when conservative treatment fails in a high-risk patient with diabetes, hammertoes and either a pre-ulcerative sign or an ulcer on the distal toe. (Weak; Low) - 12 Consider Achilles tendon lengthening, joint arthroplasty, single or pan metatarsal head resection, or osteotomy to prevent a recurrent foot ulcer when conservative treatment fails in a high-risk patient with diabetes and a plantar forefoot ulcer. (Weak; Low) - 13 Do not use a nerve decompression procedure in an effort to prevent a foot ulcer in an at-risk patient with diabetes, in preference to accepted standards of good quality care. (Weak; Low)

(Re)presenting Masculinity: A theatre director's critical observations of, and theatrical experimentation with, (re)presentations of masculinity in selected works of contemporary Australian theatre

Health professionals, academics, social commentators and the media are increasingly sending the same message – Australian men are in crisis. This message has been supported by documented rises in alcoholism, violence, depression, suicide and crime amongst men in Australia. A major cause of this crisis, it can be argued, is an over-reliance on the out-dated and limited model of hegemonic masculinity that all men are encouraged to imitate in their own behaviour. This paper, as part of a larger study, explores representations of masculinity in selected works of contemporary Australian theatre in order to investigate the concept of hegemonic masculinity and any influence it may have on the perceived ‘crisis of masculinity’. Theatre is but one of the artistic modes that can be used to investigate masculinity and issues associated with identity. The Australia Council for the Arts recognises theatre, along with literature, dance, film, television, inter-arts, music and visual arts, as critical to the understanding and expression of Australian culture and identity. Theatre has been chosen in this instance because of the opportunities available to this study for direct access to specific theatre performances and creators and, also, because of the researcher’s experience, as a theatre director, with the dramatic arts. Through interviews with writers, directors and actors, combined with the analysis of scripts, academic writings, reviews, articles, programmes, play rehearsals and workshops, this research utilises theatre as a medium to explore masculinity in Australia.

Traditional Village Governance (Desa Adat) and Inter-ethnic Conflict in Bali : A Study of Conflict between Balinese and Migrants: Cases from Municipality of Denpasar

Regional autonomy in Indonesia was initially introduced as a means of pacifying regional disappointment at the central government. Not only did the Regional Autonomy Law of 1999 give the Balinese a chance to express grievance regarding the centralist policies of the Jakarta government but also provided an opportunity to return to the regional, exclusive, traditional village governance (desa adat). As a result, the problems faced by the island, particularly ethnic conflicts, are increasingly handled by the mechanism of this traditional type of governance. Traditional village governance with regard to ethnic conflicts (occurring) between Balinese and migrants has never been systematically analyzed. Existing analyses emphasized only the social context, but do not explain either the cause of conflicts and the ensuing problems entails or the virtues of traditional village governance mechanisms for mediating in the conflict. While some accounts provide snapshots, they lack both theoretical and conflict study perspective. The primary aim of this dissertation is to explore the expression and the causes of conflict between the Balinese and migrants and to advance the potential of traditional village governance as a means of conflict resolution with particular reference to the municipality of Denpasar. One conclusion of the study is that the conflict between the Balinese and migrants has been expressed on the level of situation/contradiction, attitudes, and behavior. Yet the driving forces behind the conflict itself consist of the following factors: absence of cooperation; incompatible position and perception; inability to communicate effectively; and problem of inequality and injustice, which comes to the surface as a social, cultural, and economic problem. This complex of factors fuels collective fear for the future of both groups. The study concludes that traditional village governance mechanisms as a means of conflict resolution have not yet been able to provide an enduring resolution for the conflict. Analysis shows that the practice of traditional village governance is unable to provide satisfactory mechanisms for the conflict as prescribed by conflict resolution theory. Traditional village governance, which is derived from the exclusive Hindu-Balinese culture, is accepted as more legitimate among the Balinese than the official governance policies. However, it is not generally accepted by most of the Muslim migrants. In addition, traditional village governance lacks access to economic instruments, which weakens its capacity to tackle the economic roots of the conflict. Thus the traditional mechanisms of migrant ordinance , as practiced by the traditional village governance have not yet been successful in penetrating all aspects of the conflict. Finally, one of the main challenges for traditional village governance s legal development is the creation of a regional legal system capable of accommodating rapid changes in line with the national and international legal practices. The framing of the new laws should be responsive to the aspirations of a changing society. It should not only protect the various Balinese communities interests, but also that of other ethnic groups, especially those of the minority. In other words, the main challenge to traditional village governance is its ability to develop flexibility and inclusiveness.

How childcare providers interpret "reasonable suspicion" of child abuse

- Background Childcare providers are often “first responders” for suspected child abuse, and how they understand the concept of “reasonable suspicion” will influence their decisions regarding which warning signs warrant reporting. - Objective The purpose of this study was to investigate how childcare providers interpret the threshold for reporting suspected abuse, and to consider the implications of these findings for professional training and development. - Method A convenience sample of 355 childcare providers completed the Reasonable Suspicion of Child Abuse survey to quantify what likelihood of child abuse constitutes “reasonable suspicion.” Responses were examined for internal consistency, evidence of a group standard, and associations with professional and personal demographics. - Results On a Rank Order Scale, responses for what constitutes “reasonable suspicion” ranged from requiring that abuse be “the” most likely cause (8 %) of an injury, to the second most likely (9 %), third (18 %), fourth (18 %), to even the seventh (8 %) or eighth (5 %) most likely cause of an injury. On a numerical probability scale, 21 % of respondents indicated that “abuse” would need to be ≥83 % likely before reasonable suspicion existed; 40 % stated that a likelihood between 53–82 % was needed; 27 % identified the necessary likelihood between 33–52 %; and 12 % set a threshold between 1–32 %. - Conclusions The present finding that no consensus exists for interpreting “reasonable suspicion” suggests that a broadly accepted interpretive framework is needed in order to help prepare childcare providers to know when to report suspected abuse.

Storage stability of solid rocket fuel. 1. Effect of temperature

Ageing behaviour of polystyrene (PS)/ammonium perchlorate (AP) propellent leading to ballistic changes has been studied. It follows a zero-order kinetic law. Ageing behaviour leading to change in burning rate ( ) in the temperature range of 60–200 ° C was found to remain the same. The dependence of the change of the average thermal decomposition (TD) rate at 230 and 260°C on the change in burning rate for the propellant aged at 100 ° C in air suggests that the slow TD of the propellant is the cause of ageing. The safe-life (for a pre-assigned burning-rate change limit) at 25 ° C in air has been calculated as a function of the rate of change.

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Finland: recent changes in the epidemiology, long-term facility aspects, and phenotypic and molecular detection of isolates

Staphylococcus aureus is one of the most important bacteria that cause disease in humans, and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) has become the most commonly identified antibiotic-resistant pathogen in many parts of the world. MRSA rates have been stable for many years in the Nordic countries and the Netherlands with a low MRSA prevalence in Europe, but in the recent decades, MRSA rates have increased in those low-prevalence countries as well. MRSA has been established as a major hospital pathogen, but has also been found increasingly in long-term facilities (LTF) and in communities of persons with no connections to the health-care setting. In Finland, the annual number of MRSA isolates reported to the National Infectious Disease Register (NIDR) has constantly increased, especially outside the Helsinki metropolitan area. Molecular typing has revealed numerous outbreak strains of MRSA, some of which have previously been associated with community acquisition. In this work, data on MRSA cases notified to the NIDR and on MRSA strain types identified with pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), multilocus sequence typing (MLST), and staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec (SCCmec) typing at the National Reference Laboratory (NRL) in Finland from 1997 to 2004 were analyzed. An increasing trend in MRSA incidence in Finland from 1997 to 2004 was shown. In addition, non-multi-drug resistant (NMDR) MRSA isolates, especially those resistant only to methicillin/oxacillin, showed an emerging trend. The predominant MRSA strains changed over time and place, but two internationally spread epidemic strains of MRSA, FIN-16 and FIN-21, were related to the increase detected most recently. Those strains were also one cause of the strikingly increasing invasive MRSA findings. The rise of MRSA strains with SCCmec types IV or V, possible community-acquired MRSA was also detected. With questionnaires, the diagnostic methods used for MRSA identification in Finnish microbiology laboratories and the number of MRSA screening specimens studied were reviewed. Surveys, which focused on the MRSA situation in long-term facilities in 2001 and on the background information of MRSA-positive persons in 2001-2003, were also carried out. The rates of MRSA and screening practices varied widely across geographic regions. Part of the NMDR MRSA strains could remain undetected in some laboratories because of insufficient diagnostic techniques used. The increasing proportion of elderly population carrying MRSA suggests that MRSA is an emerging problem in Finnish long-term facilities. Among the patients, 50% of the specimens were taken on a clinical basis, 43% on a screening basis after exposure to MRSA, 3% on a screening basis because of hospital contact abroad, and 4% for other reasons. In response to an outbreak of MRSA possessing a new genotype that occurred in a health care ward and in an associated nursing home of a small municipality in Northern Finland in autumn 2003, a point-prevalence survey was performed six months later. In the same study, the molecular epidemiology of MRSA and methicillin-sensitive S. aureus (MSSA) strains were also assessed, the results to the national strain collection compared, and the difficulties of MRSA screening with low-level oxacillin-resistant isolates encountered. The original MRSA outbreak in LTF, which consisted of isolates possessing a nationally new PFGE profile (FIN-22) and internationally rare MLST type (ST-27), was confined. Another previously unrecognized MRSA strain was found with additional screening, possibly indicating that current routine MRSA screening methods may be insufficiently sensitive for strains possessing low-level oxacillin resistance. Most of the MSSA strains found were genotypically related to the epidemic MRSA strains, but only a few of them had received the SCCmec element, and all those strains possessed the new SCCmec type V. In the second largest nursing home in Finland, the colonization of S. aureus and MRSA, and the role of screening sites along with broth enrichment culture on the sensitivity to detect S. aureus were studied. Combining the use of enrichment broth and perineal swabbing, in addition to nostrils and skin lesions swabbing, may be an alternative for throat swabs in the nursing home setting, especially when residents are uncooperative. Finally, in order to evaluate adequate phenotypic and genotypic methods needed for reliable laboratory diagnostics of MRSA, oxacillin disk diffusion and MIC tests to the cefoxitin disk diffusion method at both +35°C and +30°C, both with or without an addition of sodium chloride (NaCl) to the Müller Hinton test medium, and in-house PCR to two commercial molecular methods (the GenoType® MRSA test and the EVIGENETM MRSA Detection test) with different bacterial species in addition to S. aureus were compared. The cefoxitin disk diffusion method was superior to that of oxacillin disk diffusion and to the MIC tests in predicting mecA-mediated resistance in S. aureus when incubating at +35°C with or without the addition of NaCl to the test medium. Both the Geno Type® MRSA and EVIGENETM MRSA Detection tests are usable, accurate, cost-effective, and sufficiently fast methods for rapid MRSA confirmation from a pure culture.