Sorting Test, Tower Test, and BRIEF-SR do not predict school performance of healthy adolescents in preuniversity education

Executive functions (EF) such as self-monitoring, planning, and organizing are known to develop through childhood and adolescence. They are of potential importance for learning and school performance. Earlier research into the relation between EF and school performance did not provide clear results possibly because confounding factors such as educational track, boy-girl differences, and parental education were not taken into account. The present study therefore investigated the relation between executive function tests and school performance in a highly controlled sample of 173 healthy adolescents aged 12–18. Only students in the pre-university educational track were used and the performance of boys was compared to that of girls. Results showed that there was no relation between the report marks obtained and the performance on executive function tests, notably the Sorting Test and the Tower Test of the Delis-Kaplan Executive Functions System (D-KEFS). Likewise, no relation was found between the report marks and the scores on the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function—Self-Report Version (BRIEF-SR) after these were controlled for grade, sex, and level of parental education. The findings indicate that executive functioning as measured with widely used instruments such as the BRIEF-SR does not predict school performance of adolescents in preuniversity education any better than a student's grade, sex, and level of parental education.

A randomized controlled trial of an early-intervention, computer-based literacy program to boost phonological skills in 4- to 6-year-old children

Background: Many school-based interventions are being delivered in the absence of evidence of effectiveness (Snowling & Hulme, 2011, Br. J. Educ. Psychol., 81, 1).Aim: This study sought to address this oversight by evaluating the effectiveness of the commonly used the Lexia Reading Core5 intervention, with 4- to 6-year-old pupils in Northern Ireland.Sample: A total of 126 primary school pupils in year 1 and year 2 were screened on the Phonological Assessment Battery 2nd Edition (PhAB-2). Children were recruited from the equivalent year groups to Reception and Year 1 in England and Wales, and Pre-kindergarten and Kindergarten in North America.
Methods: A total of 98 below-average pupils were randomized (T0) to either an 8-week block (inline image = 647.51 min, SD = 158.21) of daily access to Lexia Reading Core5 (n = 49) or a waiting-list control group (n = 49). Assessment of phonological skills was completed at post-intervention (T1) and at 2-month follow-up (T2) for the intervention group only.
Results: Analysis of covariance which controlled for baseline scores found that the Lexia Reading Core5 intervention group made significantly greater gains in blending, F(1, 95) = 6.50, p = .012, partial η2 = .064 (small effect size) and non-word reading, F(1, 95) = 7.20, p = .009, partial η2 = .070 (small effect size). Analysis of the 2-month follow-up of the intervention group found that all group treatment gains were maintained. However, improvements were not uniform among the intervention group with 35% failing to make progress despite access to support. Post-hoc analysis revealed that higher T0 phonological working memory scores predicted improvements made in phonological skills.
Conclusions: An early-intervention, computer-based literacy program can be effective in boosting the phonological skills of 4- to 6-year-olds, particularly if these literacy difficulties are not linked to phonological working memory deficits.

Marqueurs électrophysiologiques des dysfonctions attentionnelles et de leur récupération suite à un traumatisme craniocérébral léger

L’objectif principal de cette thèse était d’obtenir, via l’électrophysiologie cognitive, des indices de fonctionnement post-traumatisme craniocérébral léger (TCCL) pour différents niveaux de traitement de l’information, soit l’attention sélective, les processus décisionnels visuoattentionnels et les processus associés à l’exécution d’une réponse volontaire. L’hypothèse centrale était que les mécanismes de production des lésions de même que la pathophysiologie caractérisant le TCCL engendrent des dysfonctions visuoattentionnelles, du moins pendant la période aiguë suivant le TCCL (i.e. entre 1 et 3 mois post-accident), telles que mesurées à l’aide d’un nouveau paradigme électrophysiologique conçu à cet effet. Cette thèse présente deux articles qui décrivent le travail effectué afin de rencontrer ces objectifs et ainsi vérifier les hypothèses émises. Le premier article présente la démarche réalisée afin de créer une nouvelle tâche d’attention visuospatiale permettant d’obtenir les indices électrophysiologiques (amplitude, latence) et comportementaux (temps de réaction) liés aux processus de traitement visuel et attentionnel précoce (P1, N1, N2-nogo, P2, Ptc) à l’attention visuelle sélective (N2pc, SPCN) et aux processus décisionnels (P3b, P3a) chez un groupe de participants sains (i.e. sans atteinte neurologique). Le deuxième article présente l’étude des effets persistants d’un TCCL sur les fonctions visuoattentionelles via l’obtention des indices électrophysiologiques ciblés (amplitude, latence) et de données comportementales (temps de réaction à la tâche et résultats aux tests neuropsychologiques) chez deux cohortes d’individus TCCL symptomatiques, l’une en phase subaigüe (3 premiers mois post-accident), l’autre en phase chronique (6 mois à 1 an post-accident), en comparaison à un groupe de participants témoins sains. Les résultats des articles présentés dans cette thèse montrent qu’il a été possible de créer une tâche simple qui permet d’étudier de façon rapide et peu coûteuse les différents niveaux de traitement de l’information impliqués dans le déploiement de l’attention visuospatiale. Par la suite, l’utilisation de cette tâche auprès d’individus atteints d’un TCCL testés en phase sub-aiguë ou en phase chronique a permis d’objectiver des profils d’atteintes et de récupération différentiels pour chacune des composantes étudiées. En effet, alors que les composantes associées au traitement précoce de l’information visuelle (P1, N1, N2) étaient intactes, certaines composantes attentionnelles (P2) et cognitivo-attentionnelles (P3a, P3b) étaient altérées, suggérant une dysfonction au niveau des dynamiques spatio-temporelles de l’attention, de l’orientation de l’attention et de la mémoire de travail, à court et/ou à long terme après le TCCL, ceci en présence de déficits neuropsychologiques en phase subaiguë surtout et d’une symptomatologie post-TCCL persistante. Cette thèse souligne l’importance de développer des outils diagnostics sensibles et exhaustifs permettant d’objectiver les divers processus et sous-processus cognitifs susceptible d’être atteints après un TCCL.

Selective Coupling between Theta Phase and Neocortical Fast Gamma Oscillations during REM-Sleep in Mice

TORT, A. B. L. ; SCHEFFER-TEIXEIRA, R ; Souza, B.C. ; DRAGUHN, A. ; BRANKACK, J. . Theta-associated high-frequency oscillations (110-160 Hz) in the hippocampus and neocortex. Progress in Neurobiology , v. 100, p. 1-14, 2013.

Neurobiology and clinical implications of lucid dreaming

Several lines of evidence converge to the idea that rapid eye movement sleep (REMS) is a good model to foster our understanding of psychosis. Both REMS and psychosis course with internally generated perceptions and lack of rational judgment, which is attributed to a hyperlimbic activity along with hypofrontality. Interestingly, some individuals can become aware of dreaming during REMS, a particular experience known as lucid dreaming (LD), whose neurobiological basis is still controversial. Since the frontal lobe plays a role in self-consciousness, working memory and attention, here we hypothesize that LD is associated with increased frontal activity during REMS. A possible way to test this hypothesis is to check whether transcranial magnetic or electric stimulation of the frontal region during REMS triggers LD. We further suggest that psychosis and LD are opposite phenomena: LD as a physiological awakening while dreaming due to frontal activity, and psychosis as a pathological intrusion of dream features during wake state due to hypofrontality. We further suggest that LD research may have three main clinical implications. First, LD could be important to the study of consciousness, including its pathologies and other altered states. Second, LD could be used as a therapy for recurrent nightmares, a common symptom of depression and post-traumatic stress disorder. Finally, LD may allow for motor imagery during dreaming with possible improvement of physical rehabilitation. In all, we believe that LD research may clarify multiple aspects of brain functioning in its physiological, altered and pathological states.

Memória e envelhecimento: Qual o real impacto da idade?

RESUMO Objetivos. O défice mnésico é uma das alterações cognitivas que mais afeta as pessoas idosas. A idade é considerada um dos fatores de relevo nas alterações de memória, inclusivamente pelas próprias pessoas idosas. A investigação tem mostrado que existem outros fatores além da idade que afetam a memória das pessoas idosas. Contudo, fica por esclarecer qual o real papel da idade sobre a memória quando é controlada a influência de outras variáveis. Assim, o presente estudo pretende analisar o impacto da idade no funcionamento mnésico de pessoas idosas e verificar se, ao controlar o papel de outras variáveis (sexo, escolaridade, profissão, situação civil, situação residencial e situação clínica), esse potencial impacto se mantém. Métodos. A amostra global foi constituída por 1126 participantes (283 homens e 843 mulheres; 226 residentes na comunidade e 900 em resposta social dirigida à população idosa) com idades compreendidas entre os 60 e os 100 anos. A avaliação foi realizada com recurso aos itens do Mini-Mental State Examination (memória de trabalho), o fator do Montreal Cognitive Assessment (memória declarativa verbal) e Figura Complexa de ReyOsterrieth (memória visuoespacial). Resultados. Globalmente, a idade, escolaridade, profissão, situação civil, residencial e clínica influenciaram a memória de forma diferenciada consoante o tipo de memória. As análises de regressão hierárquica mostraram que a idade é um fator preditivo em todos os tipos de memória. Emergiram ainda outros fatores preditivos com coeficientes de regressão superiores à idade conforme o tipo de memória (exceto na memória de trabalho). Conclusões. A idade, a escolaridade e a profissão influenciam a memória, assim como os fatores que potencialmente estimulam cognitiva e socialmente (como ter um companheiro e residir na comunidade). Os resultados apontam para a importância de intervir em pessoas em respostas sociais, mais idosas, sem companheiro, com baixa escolaridade e profissão manual. ABSTRACT Goals. Memory impairment is one of the types of cognitive impairment that most affects the elderly. Age is considered one of the major factors in memory impairment, including by the elderly themselves. Research has shown that there are other factors affecting memory of elderly persons. It remains, however, unclear what is the real impact of age in memory when controlling the influence of other variables. Thus, this study aims to analyze the impact of age on memory functioning of elderly persons and check if the potential impact remains when controlling the role of other variables (sex, education, profession, marital status, residential status, and clinical situation). Methods. The global sample comprised 1126 subjects (283 men and 843 women, 226 residents in the community and 900 institutionalized elderly) aged from 60 to 100 years. The assessment included items from the MiniMental State Examination (working memory), the Montreal Cognitive Assessment factor (verbal declarative memory), and Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure (visuospatial memory). Results. Overall, age, education, profession, marital, residential, and clinical condition have differently influenced memory, depending on the type of memory. The hierarchical regression analysis showed that age is a predictive factor in all types of memory. However, other predictors have emerged with higher regression coefficients compared to age, according to the type of memory (except in working memory). Conclusions. Age, education and profession influence memory, as well as factors that potentially stimulate cognitively and socially (like having a partner and living in the community). The results indicate the importance of intervening, especially among institutionalized elderly, older, unmarried, with low education, and manual profession.

Distributional effects and individual differences in L2 morphology learning

Second language (L2) learning outcomes may depend on the structure of the input and learners’ cognitive abilities. This study tested whether less predictable input might facilitate learning and generalization of L2 morphology while evaluating contributions of statistical learning ability, nonverbal intelligence, phonological short-term memory, and verbal working memory. Over three sessions, 54 adults were exposed to a Russian case-marking paradigm with a balanced or skewed item distribution in the input. Whereas statistical learning ability and nonverbal intelligence predicted learning of trained items, only nonverbal intelligence also predicted generalization of case-marking inflections to new vocabulary. Neither measure of temporary storage capacity predicted learning. Balanced, less predictable input was associated with higher accuracy in generalization but only in the initial test session. These results suggest that individual differences in pattern extraction play a more sustained role in L2 acquisition than instructional manipulations that vary the predictability of lexical items in the input.

Selective Coupling between Theta Phase and Neocortical Fast Gamma Oscillations during REM-Sleep in Mice

TORT, A. B. L. ; SCHEFFER-TEIXEIRA, R ; Souza, B.C. ; DRAGUHN, A. ; BRANKACK, J. . Theta-associated high-frequency oscillations (110-160 Hz) in the hippocampus and neocortex. Progress in Neurobiology , v. 100, p. 1-14, 2013.

THE RELATIVE SIGNIFICANCE OF SYNTACTIC KNOWLEDGE AND VOCABULARY KNOWLEDGE IN SECOND LANGUAGE LISTENING COMPREHENSION

The main purpose of the current study was to examine the role of vocabulary knowledge (VK) and syntactic knowledge (SK) in L2 listening comprehension, as well as their relative significance. Unlike previous studies, the current project employed assessment tasks to measure aural and proceduralized VK and SK. In terms of VK, to avoid under-representing the construct, measures of both breadth (VB) and depth (VD) were included. Additionally, the current study examined the role of VK and SK by accounting for individual differences in two important cognitive factors in L2 listening: metacognitive knowledge (MK) and working memory (WM). Also, to explore the role of VK and SK more fully, the current study accounted for the negative impact of anxiety on WM and L2 listening. The study was carried out in an English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context, and participants were 263 Iranian learners at a wide range of English proficiency from lower-intermediate to advanced. Participants took a battery of ten linguistic, cognitive and affective measures. Then, the collected data were subjected to several preliminary analyses, but structural equation modeling (SEM) was then used as the primary analysis method to answer the study research questions. Results of the preliminary analyses revealed that MK and WM were significant predictors of L2 listening ability; thus, they were kept in the main SEM analyses. The significant role of WM was only observed when the negative effect of anxiety on WM was accounted for. Preliminary analyses also showed that VB and VD were not distinct measures of VK. However, the results also showed that if VB and VD were considered separate, VD was a better predictor of L2 listening success. The main analyses of the current study revealed a significant role for both VK and SK in explaining success in L2 listening comprehension, which differs from findings from previous empirical studies. However, SEM analysis did not reveal a statistically significant difference in terms of the predictive power of the two linguistic factors. Descriptive results of the SEM analysis, along with results from regression analysis, indicated to a more significant role for VK.

Expertise sportive et entraînement perceptivo-cognitif de l’athlète

Pour être performant au plus haut niveau, les athlètes doivent posséder une capacité perceptivo-cognitive supérieure à la moyenne. Cette faculté, reflétée sur le terrain par la vision et l’intelligence de jeu des sportifs, permet d’extraire l’information clé de la scène visuelle. La science du sport a depuis longtemps observé l’expertise perceptivo-cognitive au sein de l’environnement sportif propre aux athlètes. Récemment, des études ont rapporté que l’expertise pouvait également se refléter hors de ce contexte, lors d’activités du quotidien par exemple. De plus, les récentes théories entourant la capacité plastique du cerveau ont amené les chercheurs à développer des outils pour entraîner les capacités perceptivo-cognitives des athlètes afin de les rendre plus performants sur le terrain. Ces méthodes sont la plupart du temps contextuelles à la discipline visée. Cependant, un nouvel outil d’entraînement perceptivo-cognitif, nommé 3-Dimensional Multiple Object Tracking (3D-MOT) et dénué de contexte sportif, a récemment vu le jour et a fait l’objet de nos recherches. Un de nos objectifs visait à mettre en évidence l’expertise perceptivo-cognitive spécifique et non-spécifique chez des athlètes lors d’une même étude. Nous avons évalué la perception du mouvement biologique chez des joueurs de soccer et des non-athlètes dans une salle de réalité virtuelle. Les sportifs étaient systématiquement plus performants en termes d’efficacité et de temps de réaction que les novices pour discriminer la direction du mouvement biologique lors d’un exercice spécifique de soccer (tir) mais également lors d’une action issue du quotidien (marche). Ces résultats signifient que les athlètes possèdent une meilleure capacité à percevoir les mouvements biologiques humains effectués par les autres. La pratique du soccer semble donc conférer un avantage fondamental qui va au-delà des fonctions spécifiques à la pratique d’un sport. Ces découvertes sont à mettre en parallèle avec la performance exceptionnelle des athlètes dans le traitement de scènes visuelles dynamiques et également dénuées de contexte sportif. Des joueurs de soccer ont surpassé des novices dans le test de 3D-MOT qui consiste à suivre des cibles en mouvement et stimule les capacités perceptivo-cognitives. Leur vitesse de suivi visuel ainsi que leur faculté d’apprentissage étaient supérieures. Ces résultats confirmaient des données obtenues précédemment chez des sportifs. Le 3D-MOT est un test de poursuite attentionnelle qui stimule le traitement actif de l’information visuelle dynamique. En particulier, l’attention sélective, dynamique et soutenue ainsi que la mémoire de travail. Cet outil peut être utilisé pour entraîner les fonctions perceptivo-cognitives des athlètes. Des joueurs de soccer entraînés au 3D-MOT durant 30 sessions ont montré une amélioration de la prise de décision dans les passes de 15% sur le terrain comparés à des joueurs de groupes contrôles. Ces données démontrent pour la première fois un transfert perceptivo-cognitif du laboratoire au terrain suivant un entraînement perceptivo-cognitif non-contextuel au sport de l’athlète ciblé. Nos recherches aident à comprendre l’expertise des athlètes par l’approche spécifique et non-spécifique et présentent également les outils d’entraînements perceptivo-cognitifs, en particulier le 3D-MOT, pour améliorer la performance dans le sport de haut-niveau.

Assessment of iodine intake and related cognitive function impairments in elementary schoolchildren from Terceira Island, Azores (Portugal)

Dissertação de Mestrado, Ciências Biomédicas, 28 de Junho de 2016, Universidade dos Açores.

Neurobiology and clinical implications of lucid dreaming

Several lines of evidence converge to the idea that rapid eye movement sleep (REMS) is a good model to foster our understanding of psychosis. Both REMS and psychosis course with internally generated perceptions and lack of rational judgment, which is attributed to a hyperlimbic activity along with hypofrontality. Interestingly, some individuals can become aware of dreaming during REMS, a particular experience known as lucid dreaming (LD), whose neurobiological basis is still controversial. Since the frontal lobe plays a role in self-consciousness, working memory and attention, here we hypothesize that LD is associated with increased frontal activity during REMS. A possible way to test this hypothesis is to check whether transcranial magnetic or electric stimulation of the frontal region during REMS triggers LD. We further suggest that psychosis and LD are opposite phenomena: LD as a physiological awakening while dreaming due to frontal activity, and psychosis as a pathological intrusion of dream features during wake state due to hypofrontality. We further suggest that LD research may have three main clinical implications. First, LD could be important to the study of consciousness, including its pathologies and other altered states. Second, LD could be used as a therapy for recurrent nightmares, a common symptom of depression and post-traumatic stress disorder. Finally, LD may allow for motor imagery during dreaming with possible improvement of physical rehabilitation. In all, we believe that LD research may clarify multiple aspects of brain functioning in its physiological, altered and pathological states.

Marqueurs électrophysiologiques des dysfonctions attentionnelles et de leur récupération suite à un traumatisme craniocérébral léger

L’objectif principal de cette thèse était d’obtenir, via l’électrophysiologie cognitive, des indices de fonctionnement post-traumatisme craniocérébral léger (TCCL) pour différents niveaux de traitement de l’information, soit l’attention sélective, les processus décisionnels visuoattentionnels et les processus associés à l’exécution d’une réponse volontaire. L’hypothèse centrale était que les mécanismes de production des lésions de même que la pathophysiologie caractérisant le TCCL engendrent des dysfonctions visuoattentionnelles, du moins pendant la période aiguë suivant le TCCL (i.e. entre 1 et 3 mois post-accident), telles que mesurées à l’aide d’un nouveau paradigme électrophysiologique conçu à cet effet. Cette thèse présente deux articles qui décrivent le travail effectué afin de rencontrer ces objectifs et ainsi vérifier les hypothèses émises. Le premier article présente la démarche réalisée afin de créer une nouvelle tâche d’attention visuospatiale permettant d’obtenir les indices électrophysiologiques (amplitude, latence) et comportementaux (temps de réaction) liés aux processus de traitement visuel et attentionnel précoce (P1, N1, N2-nogo, P2, Ptc) à l’attention visuelle sélective (N2pc, SPCN) et aux processus décisionnels (P3b, P3a) chez un groupe de participants sains (i.e. sans atteinte neurologique). Le deuxième article présente l’étude des effets persistants d’un TCCL sur les fonctions visuoattentionelles via l’obtention des indices électrophysiologiques ciblés (amplitude, latence) et de données comportementales (temps de réaction à la tâche et résultats aux tests neuropsychologiques) chez deux cohortes d’individus TCCL symptomatiques, l’une en phase subaigüe (3 premiers mois post-accident), l’autre en phase chronique (6 mois à 1 an post-accident), en comparaison à un groupe de participants témoins sains. Les résultats des articles présentés dans cette thèse montrent qu’il a été possible de créer une tâche simple qui permet d’étudier de façon rapide et peu coûteuse les différents niveaux de traitement de l’information impliqués dans le déploiement de l’attention visuospatiale. Par la suite, l’utilisation de cette tâche auprès d’individus atteints d’un TCCL testés en phase sub-aiguë ou en phase chronique a permis d’objectiver des profils d’atteintes et de récupération différentiels pour chacune des composantes étudiées. En effet, alors que les composantes associées au traitement précoce de l’information visuelle (P1, N1, N2) étaient intactes, certaines composantes attentionnelles (P2) et cognitivo-attentionnelles (P3a, P3b) étaient altérées, suggérant une dysfonction au niveau des dynamiques spatio-temporelles de l’attention, de l’orientation de l’attention et de la mémoire de travail, à court et/ou à long terme après le TCCL, ceci en présence de déficits neuropsychologiques en phase subaiguë surtout et d’une symptomatologie post-TCCL persistante. Cette thèse souligne l’importance de développer des outils diagnostics sensibles et exhaustifs permettant d’objectiver les divers processus et sous-processus cognitifs susceptible d’être atteints après un TCCL.

Seeing it my way: a case of a selective deficit in inhibiting self-perspective

Little is known about the functional and neural architecture of social reasoning, one major obstacle being that we crucially lack the relevant tools to test potentially different social reasoning components. In the case of belief reasoning, previous studies tried to separate the processes involved in belief reasoning per se from those involved in the processing of the high incidental demands such as the working memory demands of typical belief tasks (e.g., Stone et al., 1998; Samson et al., 2004). In this study, we developed new belief tasks in order to disentangle, for the first time, two perspective taking components involved in belief reasoning: (1) the ability to inhibit one’s own perspective (self-perspective inhibition) and (2) the ability to infer someone else’s perspective as such (other-perspective taking). The two tasks had similar demands in other-perspective taking as they both required the participant to infer that a character has a false belief about an object’s location. However, the tasks varied in the self-perspective inhibition demands. In the task with the lowest self-perspective inhibition demands, at the time the participant had to infer the character’s false belief, he or she had no idea what the new object’s location was. In contrast, in the task with the highest self-perspective inhibition demands, at the time the participant had to infer the character’s false belief, he or she knew where the object was actually located (and this knowledge had thus to be inhibited). The two tasks were presented to a stroke patient, WBA, with right prefrontal and temporal damage. WBA performed well in the low-inhibition false belief task but showed striking difficulty in the task placing high self-perspective inhibition demands, showing a selective deficit in inhibiting self-perspective. WBA also made egocentric errors in other social and visual perspective taking tasks, indicating a difficulty with belief attribution extending to the attribution of emotions, desires and visual experiences to other people. The case of WBA, together with the recent report of three patients impaired in belief reasoning even when self-perspective inhibition demands were reduced (Samson et al., 2004), provide the first neuropsychological evidence that (a) the inhibition of one’s own point of view and (b) the ability to infer someone else’ s point of view, rely on distinct neural and functional processes.

Necessidade de cognição, memória de trabalho e recuperação de contra-exemplos para condicionais causais

A procura de contra-exemplos é provavelmente a fase mais importante do raciocí - nio dedutivo, uma vez que visa garantir a validade da conclusão. A explicação mais difundida para a diminuta procura de contra-exemplos é a capacidade limitada da memória de trabalho (Markovits & Barrouillet 2002; De Neys, Schaeken & d’Ydewalle, 2002; 2003; 2005a; 2005b) o que não parece ser suficiente para explicar a pouca iniciativa dos sujeitos em utilizarem a procura de contra-exemplos como estratégia de verificação (Oakhill, & Johnson-Laird, 1985). No presente trabalho testou-se a hipótese de que a necessidade de cognição dos sujeitos (Cacioppo & Petty, 1982) tem influência no processo de recuperação de contra-exemplos, para condicionais causais, de modo aprofundar o conhecimento das razões que levam a que os sujeitos procurem tão poucos contra-exemplos durante o raciocínio dedutivo (Oakhill, & Johnson-Laird, 1985; Johnson-laird, 2006). Para o efeito, um total de 60 participantes (15 alunos do mestrado integrado em psicologia, 15 alunos de doutoramento, 15 operários fabris e 15 empregados de mesa) realizou 3 tarefas: escala Necessidade de Cognição (Silva & Garcia-Marques, 2006), uma tarefa de raciocínio e uma tarefa para avaliar a capacidade da memória de trabalho (Guerreiro, Quelhas & Garcia-Madruga, 2006). Os resultados indicam que o processo de recuperação de contra-exemplos é influenciado pela necessidade de cognição e que esta influência além de significativa é superior à influência da capacidade da memória de trabalho.