Relationships between running economy and mechanics in middle-distance runners

Running economy (RE), i.e. the oxygen consumption at a given submaximal speed, is an important determinant of endurance running performance. So far, investigators have widely attempted to individuate the factors affecting RE in competitive athletes, focusing mainly on the relationships between RE and running biomechanics. However, the current results are inconsistent and a clear mechanical profile of an economic runner has not been yet established. The present work aimed to better understand how the running technique influences RE in sub-elite middle-distance runners by investigating the biomechanical parameters acting on RE and the underlying mechanisms. Special emphasis was given to accounting for intra-individual variability in RE at different speeds and to assessing track running rather than treadmill running. In Study One, a factor analysis was used to reduce the 30 considered mechanical parameters to few global descriptors of the running mechanics. Then, a biomechanical comparison between economic and non economic runners and a multiple regression analysis (with RE as criterion variable and mechanical indices as independent variables) were performed. It was found that a better RE was associated to higher knee and ankle flexion in the support phase, and that the combination of seven individuated mechanical measures explains ∼72% of the variability in RE. In Study Two, a mathematical model predicting RE a priori from the rate of force production, originally developed and used in the field of comparative biology, was adapted and tested in competitive athletes. The model showed a very good fit (R2=0.86). In conclusion, the results of this dissertation suggest that the very complex interrelationships among the mechanical parameters affecting RE may be successfully dealt with through multivariate statistical analyses and the application of theoretical mathematical models. Thanks to these results, coaches are provided with useful tools to assess the biomechanical profile of their athletes. Thus, individual weaknesses in the running technique may be identified and removed, with the ultimate goal to improve RE.

Sviluppo di metodologie di localizzazione nel contesto del Comprehensive Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty

Since the first underground nuclear explosion, carried out in 1958, the analysis of seismic signals generated by these sources has allowed seismologists to refine the travel times of seismic waves through the Earth and to verify the accuracy of the location algorithms (the ground truth for these sources was often known). Long international negotiates have been devoted to limit the proliferation and testing of nuclear weapons. In particular the Treaty for the comprehensive nuclear test ban (CTBT), was opened to signatures in 1996, though, even if it has been signed by 178 States, has not yet entered into force, The Treaty underlines the fundamental role of the seismological observations to verify its compliance, by detecting and locating seismic events, and identifying the nature of their sources. A precise definition of the hypocentral parameters represents the first step to discriminate whether a given seismic event is natural or not. In case that a specific event is retained suspicious by the majority of the State Parties, the Treaty contains provisions for conducting an on-site inspection (OSI) in the area surrounding the epicenter of the event, located through the International Monitoring System (IMS) of the CTBT Organization. An OSI is supposed to include the use of passive seismic techniques in the area of the suspected clandestine underground nuclear test. In fact, high quality seismological systems are thought to be capable to detect and locate very weak aftershocks triggered by underground nuclear explosions in the first days or weeks following the test. This PhD thesis deals with the development of two different seismic location techniques: the first one, known as the double difference joint hypocenter determination (DDJHD) technique, is aimed at locating closely spaced events at a global scale. The locations obtained by this method are characterized by a high relative accuracy, although the absolute location of the whole cluster remains uncertain. We eliminate this problem introducing a priori information: the known location of a selected event. The second technique concerns the reliable estimates of back azimuth and apparent velocity of seismic waves from local events of very low magnitude recorded by a trypartite array at a very local scale. For the two above-mentioned techniques, we have used the crosscorrelation technique among digital waveforms in order to minimize the errors linked with incorrect phase picking. The cross-correlation method relies on the similarity between waveforms of a pair of events at the same station, at the global scale, and on the similarity between waveforms of the same event at two different sensors of the try-partite array, at the local scale. After preliminary tests on the reliability of our location techniques based on simulations, we have applied both methodologies to real seismic events. The DDJHD technique has been applied to a seismic sequence occurred in the Turkey-Iran border region, using the data recorded by the IMS. At the beginning, the algorithm was applied to the differences among the original arrival times of the P phases, so the cross-correlation was not used. We have obtained that the relevant geometrical spreading, noticeable in the standard locations (namely the locations produced by the analysts of the International Data Center (IDC) of the CTBT Organization, assumed as our reference), has been considerably reduced by the application of our technique. This is what we expected, since the methodology has been applied to a sequence of events for which we can suppose a real closeness among the hypocenters, belonging to the same seismic structure. Our results point out the main advantage of this methodology: the systematic errors affecting the arrival times have been removed or at least reduced. The introduction of the cross-correlation has not brought evident improvements to our results: the two sets of locations (without and with the application of the cross-correlation technique) are very similar to each other. This can be commented saying that the use of the crosscorrelation has not substantially improved the precision of the manual pickings. Probably the pickings reported by the IDC are good enough to make the random picking error less important than the systematic error on travel times. As a further justification for the scarce quality of the results given by the cross-correlation, it should be remarked that the events included in our data set don’t have generally a good signal to noise ratio (SNR): the selected sequence is composed of weak events ( magnitude 4 or smaller) and the signals are strongly attenuated because of the large distance between the stations and the hypocentral area. In the local scale, in addition to the cross-correlation, we have performed a signal interpolation in order to improve the time resolution. The algorithm so developed has been applied to the data collected during an experiment carried out in Israel between 1998 and 1999. The results pointed out the following relevant conclusions: a) it is necessary to correlate waveform segments corresponding to the same seismic phases; b) it is not essential to select the exact first arrivals; and c) relevant information can be also obtained from the maximum amplitude wavelet of the waveforms (particularly in bad SNR conditions). Another remarkable point of our procedure is that its application doesn’t demand a long time to process the data, and therefore the user can immediately check the results. During a field survey, such feature will make possible a quasi real-time check allowing the immediate optimization of the array geometry, if so suggested by the results at an early stage.

Tactile perception - Perception of tactile distance changes with body site: a neural network modelling study.

La distorsione della percezione della distanza tra due stimoli puntuali applicati sulla superfice della pelle di diverse regioni corporee è conosciuta come Illusione di Weber. Questa illusione è stata osservata, e verificata, in molti esperimenti in cui ai soggetti era chiesto di giudicare la distanza tra due stimoli applicati sulla superficie della pelle di differenti parti corporee. Da tali esperimenti si è dedotto che una stessa distanza tra gli stimoli è giudicata differentemente per diverse regioni corporee. Il concetto secondo cui la distanza sulla pelle è spesso percepita in maniera alterata è ampiamente condiviso, ma i meccanismi neurali che manovrano questa illusione sono, allo stesso tempo, ancora ampiamente sconosciuti. In particolare, non è ancora chiaro come sia interpretata la distanza tra due stimoli puntuali simultanei, e quali aree celebrali siano coinvolte in questa elaborazione. L’illusione di Weber può essere spiegata, in parte, considerando la differenza in termini di densità meccano-recettoriale delle differenti regioni corporee, e l’immagine distorta del nostro corpo che risiede nella Corteccia Primaria Somato-Sensoriale (homunculus). Tuttavia, questi meccanismi sembrano non sufficienti a spiegare il fenomeno osservato: infatti, secondo i risultati derivanti da 100 anni di sperimentazioni, le distorsioni effettive nel giudizio delle distanze sono molto più piccole rispetto alle distorsioni che la Corteccia Primaria suggerisce. In altre parole, l’illusione osservata negli esperimenti tattili è molto più piccola rispetto all’effetto prodotto dalla differente densità recettoriale che affligge le diverse parti del corpo, o dall’estensione corticale. Ciò, ha portato a ipotizzare che la percezione della distanza tattile richieda la presenza di un’ulteriore area celebrale, e di ulteriori meccanismi che operino allo scopo di ridimensionare – almeno parzialmente – le informazioni derivanti dalla corteccia primaria, in modo da mantenere una certa costanza nella percezione della distanza tattile lungo la superfice corporea. E’ stata così proposta la presenza di una sorta di “processo di ridimensionamento”, chiamato “Rescaling Process” che opera per ridurre questa illusione verso una percezione più verosimile. Il verificarsi di questo processo è sostenuto da molti ricercatori in ambito neuro scientifico; in particolare, dal Dr. Matthew Longo, neuro scienziato del Department of Psychological Sciences (Birkbeck University of London), le cui ricerche sulla percezione della distanza tattile e sulla rappresentazione corporea sembrano confermare questa ipotesi. Tuttavia, i meccanismi neurali, e i circuiti che stanno alla base di questo potenziale “Rescaling Process” sono ancora ampiamente sconosciuti. Lo scopo di questa tesi è stato quello di chiarire la possibile organizzazione della rete, e i meccanismi neurali che scatenano l’illusione di Weber e il “Rescaling Process”, usando un modello di rete neurale. La maggior parte del lavoro è stata svolta nel Dipartimento di Scienze Psicologiche della Birkbeck University of London, sotto la supervisione del Dott. M. Longo, il quale ha contribuito principalmente all’interpretazione dei risultati del modello, dando suggerimenti sull’elaborazione dei risultati in modo da ottenere un’informazione più chiara; inoltre egli ha fornito utili direttive per la validazione dei risultati durante l’implementazione di test statistici. Per replicare l’illusione di Weber ed il “Rescaling Proess”, la rete neurale è stata organizzata con due strati principali di neuroni corrispondenti a due differenti aree funzionali corticali: • Primo strato di neuroni (il quale dà il via ad una prima elaborazione degli stimoli esterni): questo strato può essere pensato come parte della Corteccia Primaria Somato-Sensoriale affetta da Magnificazione Corticale (homunculus). • Secondo strato di neuroni (successiva elaborazione delle informazioni provenienti dal primo strato): questo strato può rappresentare un’Area Corticale più elevata coinvolta nell’implementazione del “Rescaling Process”. Le reti neurali sono state costruite includendo connessioni sinaptiche all’interno di ogni strato (Sinapsi Laterali), e connessioni sinaptiche tra i due strati neurali (Sinapsi Feed-Forward), assumendo inoltre che l’attività di ogni neurone dipenda dal suo input attraverso una relazione sigmoidale statica, cosi come da una dinamica del primo ordine. In particolare, usando la struttura appena descritta, sono state implementate due differenti reti neurali, per due differenti regioni corporee (per esempio, Mano e Braccio), caratterizzate da differente risoluzione tattile e differente Magnificazione Corticale, in modo da replicare l’Illusione di Weber ed il “Rescaling Process”. Questi modelli possono aiutare a comprendere il meccanismo dell’illusione di Weber e dare così una possibile spiegazione al “Rescaling Process”. Inoltre, le reti neurali implementate forniscono un valido contributo per la comprensione della strategia adottata dal cervello nell’interpretazione della distanza sulla superficie della pelle. Oltre allo scopo di comprensione, tali modelli potrebbero essere impiegati altresì per formulare predizioni che potranno poi essere verificate in seguito, in vivo, su soggetti reali attraverso esperimenti di percezione tattile. E’ importante sottolineare che i modelli implementati sono da considerarsi prettamente come modelli funzionali e non intendono replicare dettagli fisiologici ed anatomici. I principali risultati ottenuti tramite questi modelli sono la riproduzione del fenomeno della “Weber’s Illusion” per due differenti regioni corporee, Mano e Braccio, come riportato nei tanti articoli riguardanti le illusioni tattili (per esempio “The perception of distance and location for dual tactile pressures” di Barry G. Green). L’illusione di Weber è stata registrata attraverso l’output delle reti neurali, e poi rappresentata graficamente, cercando di spiegare le ragioni di tali risultati.

Tactile Perception - Perception of tactile distance on a single skin surface changes with stimulus orientation: a neuronal network modelling study

L’interazione che abbiamo con l’ambiente che ci circonda dipende sia da diverse tipologie di stimoli esterni che percepiamo (tattili, visivi, acustici, ecc.) sia dalla loro elaborazione per opera del nostro sistema nervoso. A volte però, l’integrazione e l’elaborazione di tali input possono causare effetti d’illusione. Ciò si presenta, ad esempio, nella percezione tattile. Infatti, la percezione di distanze tattili varia al variare della regione corporea considerata. Il concetto che distanze sulla cute siano frequentemente erroneamente percepite, è stato scoperto circa un secolo fa da Weber. In particolare, una determinata distanza fisica, è percepita maggiore su parti del corpo che presentano una più alta densità di meccanocettori rispetto a distanze applicate su parti del corpo con inferiore densità. Oltre a questa illusione, un importante fenomeno osservato in vivo è rappresentato dal fatto che la percezione della distanza tattile dipende dall’orientazione degli stimoli applicati sulla cute. In sostanza, la distanza percepita su una regione cutanea varia al variare dell’orientazione degli stimoli applicati. Recentemente, Longo e Haggard (Longo & Haggard, J.Exp.Psychol. Hum Percept Perform 37: 720-726, 2011), allo scopo di investigare come sia rappresentato il nostro corpo all’interno del nostro cervello, hanno messo a confronto distanze tattili a diverse orientazioni sulla mano deducendo che la distanza fra due stimoli puntuali è percepita maggiore se applicata trasversalmente sulla mano anziché longitudinalmente. Tale illusione è nota con il nome di Illusione Tattile Orientazione-Dipendente e diversi risultati riportati in letteratura dimostrano che tale illusione dipende dalla distanza che intercorre fra i due stimoli puntuali sulla cute. Infatti, Green riporta in un suo articolo (Green, Percpept Pshycophys 31, 315-323, 1982) il fatto che maggiore sia la distanza applicata e maggiore risulterà l’effetto illusivo che si presenta. L’illusione di Weber e l’illusione tattile orientazione-dipendente sono spiegate in letteratura considerando differenze riguardanti la densità di recettori, gli effetti di magnificazione corticale a livello della corteccia primaria somatosensoriale (regioni della corteccia somatosensoriale, di dimensioni differenti, sono adibite a diverse regioni corporee) e differenze nella dimensione e forma dei campi recettivi. Tuttavia tali effetti di illusione risultano molto meno rilevanti rispetto a quelli che ci si aspetta semplicemente considerando i meccanismi fisiologici, elencati in precedenza, che li causano. Ciò suggerisce che l’informazione tattile elaborata a livello della corteccia primaria somatosensoriale, riceva successivi step di elaborazione in aree corticali di più alto livello. Esse agiscono allo scopo di ridurre il divario fra distanza percepita trasversalmente e distanza percepita longitudinalmente, rendendole più simili tra loro. Tale processo assume il nome di “Rescaling Process”. I meccanismi neurali che operano nel cervello allo scopo di garantire Rescaling Process restano ancora largamente sconosciuti. Perciò, lo scopo del mio progetto di tesi è stato quello di realizzare un modello di rete neurale che simulasse gli aspetti riguardanti la percezione tattile, l’illusione orientazione-dipendente e il processo di rescaling avanzando possibili ipotesi circa i meccanismi neurali che concorrono alla loro realizzazione. Il modello computazionale si compone di due diversi layers neurali che processano l’informazione tattile. Uno di questi rappresenta un’area corticale di più basso livello (chiamata Area1) nella quale una prima e distorta rappresentazione tattile è realizzata. Per questo, tale layer potrebbe rappresentare un’area della corteccia primaria somatosensoriale, dove la rappresentazione della distanza tattile è significativamente distorta a causa dell’anisotropia dei campi recettivi e della magnificazione corticale. Il secondo layer (chiamato Area2) rappresenta un’area di più alto livello che riceve le informazioni tattili dal primo e ne riduce la loro distorsione mediante Rescaling Process. Questo layer potrebbe rappresentare aree corticali superiori (ad esempio la corteccia parietale o quella temporale) adibite anch’esse alla percezione di distanze tattili ed implicate nel Rescaling Process. Nel modello, i neuroni in Area1 ricevono informazioni dagli stimoli esterni (applicati sulla cute) inviando quindi informazioni ai neuroni in Area2 mediante sinapsi Feed-forward eccitatorie. Di fatto, neuroni appartenenti ad uno stesso layer comunicano fra loro attraverso sinapsi laterali aventi una forma a cappello Messicano. E’ importante affermare che la rete neurale implementata è principalmente un modello concettuale che non si preme di fornire un’accurata riproduzione delle strutture fisiologiche ed anatomiche. Per questo occorre considerare un livello astratto di implementazione senza specificare un’esatta corrispondenza tra layers nel modello e regioni anatomiche presenti nel cervello. Tuttavia, i meccanismi inclusi nel modello sono biologicamente plausibili. Dunque la rete neurale può essere utile per una migliore comprensione dei molteplici meccanismi agenti nel nostro cervello, allo scopo di elaborare diversi input tattili. Infatti, il modello è in grado di riprodurre diversi risultati riportati negli articoli di Green e Longo & Haggard.

Complexes of polyelectrolytes with defined charge distance and different dendrimer counterions

Complexes of polyelectrolytes with defined charge distance and different dendrimer counterions Magdalena Chelmecka Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research; Ackermannweg 10; D-55128 Mainz ; Tel.: (+49) 06131- 379 – 226 A study of complexes in solution is of interest to investigate whether the formation of well-defined assemblies like in classical surfactant systems is possible. Aim of this thesis is to investigate the electrostatic self-assembly of linear polycations of varying charge distance with “large” counterions of varying architecture. We especially investigate the morphology of objects formed, but also their stability under salt free condition and after low molecular mass salt addition. As polycations, Poly(dialkylimino)-alkylene salts (Ionenes) I65MeBr and I25MeBr were chosen. Ionenes are synthesized via Menschutkin reaction and characterized by standard methods. Counterions are Polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimers of generations G2.5, G5.5, G7.5 with -COONa surface groups and shape-persistent, Polyphenylene dendrimers of generation G1 with surface -COOH groups. A complex interplay of interactions is expected to direct the self assembly via electrostatic interaction, geometric factors, hydrophobic interaction or hydrogen bonds. Methods used for the investigation of complexes are: UV-spectroscopy, pH-metric techniques, dynamic and static light scattering, small angle neutron scattering,  potential measurements and potentiometric titration. Under certain conditions, (i.e. charge ratio of compounds, charge density of ionene and dendrimer also concentration of sample) polyelectrolyte systems composed of ionenes and dendrimers build complexes in solution. System compounds are typical polyelectrolytes, but structures which they build behave not usual for typical polyelectrolytes. In a one diffusion mode regime aggregates of about 100 nm hydrodynamic radius have been found. Such aggregates are core-shell or anisotropic core shell structures in the case of ionenes/PAMAM dendrimers complexes. These complexes are stable even at high ionic strength. In case of ionenes with poly(phenylene) dendrimers, hard sphere-like objects or spherical objects with hairy-like surface have been found in a one diffusion mode regime. Their stability at high ionic strength is lower. For the ionenes/poly(phenylene) dendrimers systems one transition point has been found from one to two diffusion processes, towards increasing ionene concentration, i.e. for the samples with fixed dendrimer concentration towards increasing ionic strength. For the diffusion profile of ionene/PAMAM dendrimers in most cases two transition regimes are observed. One at very low ionene concentration, the second one at high ionene concentrations, which again means for the samples with fixed dendrimer concentration, also at higher ionic strength. Both two mode regimes are separated by the one mode regime. As was confirmed experimentally, the one diffusion mode regime is caused by the motion of well defined assemblies. The two diffusion mode regimes are caused by the movement of different sized species in solution, large aggregates and middle-size aggregates (oligoaggregates). The location and also the number of transition points in the diffusion profiles is dependent on the ionene to dendrimer charge ratio, charge density of the compounds and concentration. No influence of the molecular mass of the ionene has been found. The aggregates are found to be charged on the surface, however this surface charge does not significantly influence the diffusion properties of the system.

Lifelines in case of Natural Disaster Emergencies

In order to handle Natural disasters, emergency areas are often individuated over the territory, close to populated centres. In these areas, rescue services are located which respond with resources and materials for population relief. A method of automatic positioning of these centres in case of a flood or an earthquake is presented. The positioning procedure consists of two distinct parts developed by the research group of Prof Michael G. H. Bell of Imperial College, London, refined and applied to real cases at the University of Bologna under the coordination of Prof Ezio Todini. There are certain requirements that need to be observed such as the maximum number of rescue points as well as the number of people involved. Initially, the candidate points are decided according to the ones proposed by the local civil protection services. We then calculate all possible routes from each candidate rescue point to all other points, generally using the concept of the "hyperpath", namely a set of paths each one of which may be optimal. The attributes of the road network are of fundamental importance, both for the calculation of the ideal distance and eventual delays due to the event measured in travel time units. In a second phase, the distances are used to decide the optimum rescue point positions using heuristics. This second part functions by "elimination". In the beginning, all points are considered rescue centres. During every interaction we wish to delete one point and calculate the impact it creates. In each case, we delete the point that creates less impact until we reach the number of rescue centres we wish to keep.

Internationalization intentions: micro-foundations and psychological distance perceptions in immigrant and non-immigrant entrepreneurs

This dissertation project aims at shedding light on the micro-foundations of international entrepreneurship, focusing on the pre-internationalization phase and taking an individual-level perspective. Three research questions are investigated building on a cognitive model of internationalization intentions. First, what are the antecedents to internationalization intentions, i.e. desirability and feasibility, and how they interact with psychological distance towards internationalization options. Second, what is the role of previous entrepreneurs’ experience on such antecedents, in particular for immigrant vs. non-immigrant entrepreneurs. Third, how are these antecedent elements influenced by entrepreneurs’ individual-level motivations and goals. Using a new data set from 140 independent, non-internationalized, high-tech SMEs and their 169 owners, a variety of analytical techniques are used to investigate the research questions, such as structural equation modeling, hierarchical regression and a "laddering" technique. This project advances our theoretical understanding of internationalization and international entrepreneurship and has relevant implications for entrepreneurs and policy-makers.

Improving the cosmic distance ladder. Distance and structure of the Large Magellanic Cloud

The Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) is widely considered as the first step of the cosmological distance ladder, since it contains many different distance indicators. An accurate determination of the distance to the LMC allows one to calibrate these distance indicators that are then used to measure the distance to far objects. The main goal of this thesis is to study the distance and structure of the LMC, as traced by different distance indicators. For these purposes three types of distance indicators were chosen: Classical Cepheids,``hot'' eclipsing binaries and RR Lyrae stars. These objects belong to different stellar populations tracing, in turn, different sub-structures of the LMC. The RR Lyrae stars (age >10 Gyr) are distributed smoothly and likely trace the halo of the LMC. Classical Cepheids are young objects (age 50-200 Myr), mainly located in the bar and spiral arm of the galaxy, while ``hot'' eclipsing binaries mainly trace the star forming regions of the LMC. Furthermore, we have chosen these distance indicators for our study, since the calibration of their zero-points is based on fundamental geometric methods. The ESA cornerstone mission Gaia, launched on 19 December 2013, will measure trigonometric parallaxes for one billion stars with an accuracy of 20 micro-arcsec at V=15 mag, and 200 micro-arcsec at V=20 mag, thus will allow us to calibrate the zero-points of Classical Cepheids, eclipsing binaries and RR Lyrae stars with an unprecedented precision.

Dynamic distance analysis : new geometric data structures and algorithms for the real-time calculation of tolerance violating regions in the digital mockup process

In vielen Industriezweigen, zum Beispiel in der Automobilindustrie, werden Digitale Versuchsmodelle (Digital MockUps) eingesetzt, um die Konstruktion und die Funktion eines Produkts am virtuellen Prototypen zu überprüfen. Ein Anwendungsfall ist dabei die Überprüfung von Sicherheitsabständen einzelner Bauteile, die sogenannte Abstandsanalyse. Ingenieure ermitteln dabei für bestimmte Bauteile, ob diese in ihrer Ruhelage sowie während einer Bewegung einen vorgegeben Sicherheitsabstand zu den umgebenden Bauteilen einhalten. Unterschreiten Bauteile den Sicherheitsabstand, so muss deren Form oder Lage verändert werden. Dazu ist es wichtig, die Bereiche der Bauteile, welche den Sicherhabstand verletzen, genau zu kennen. rnrnIn dieser Arbeit präsentieren wir eine Lösung zur Echtzeitberechnung aller den Sicherheitsabstand unterschreitenden Bereiche zwischen zwei geometrischen Objekten. Die Objekte sind dabei jeweils als Menge von Primitiven (z.B. Dreiecken) gegeben. Für jeden Zeitpunkt, in dem eine Transformation auf eines der Objekte angewendet wird, berechnen wir die Menge aller den Sicherheitsabstand unterschreitenden Primitive und bezeichnen diese als die Menge aller toleranzverletzenden Primitive. Wir präsentieren in dieser Arbeit eine ganzheitliche Lösung, welche sich in die folgenden drei großen Themengebiete unterteilen lässt.rnrnIm ersten Teil dieser Arbeit untersuchen wir Algorithmen, die für zwei Dreiecke überprüfen, ob diese toleranzverletzend sind. Hierfür präsentieren wir verschiedene Ansätze für Dreiecks-Dreiecks Toleranztests und zeigen, dass spezielle Toleranztests deutlich performanter sind als bisher verwendete Abstandsberechnungen. Im Fokus unserer Arbeit steht dabei die Entwicklung eines neuartigen Toleranztests, welcher im Dualraum arbeitet. In all unseren Benchmarks zur Berechnung aller toleranzverletzenden Primitive beweist sich unser Ansatz im dualen Raum immer als der Performanteste.rnrnDer zweite Teil dieser Arbeit befasst sich mit Datenstrukturen und Algorithmen zur Echtzeitberechnung aller toleranzverletzenden Primitive zwischen zwei geometrischen Objekten. Wir entwickeln eine kombinierte Datenstruktur, die sich aus einer flachen hierarchischen Datenstruktur und mehreren Uniform Grids zusammensetzt. Um effiziente Laufzeiten zu gewährleisten ist es vor allem wichtig, den geforderten Sicherheitsabstand sinnvoll im Design der Datenstrukturen und der Anfragealgorithmen zu beachten. Wir präsentieren hierzu Lösungen, die die Menge der zu testenden Paare von Primitiven schnell bestimmen. Darüber hinaus entwickeln wir Strategien, wie Primitive als toleranzverletzend erkannt werden können, ohne einen aufwändigen Primitiv-Primitiv Toleranztest zu berechnen. In unseren Benchmarks zeigen wir, dass wir mit unseren Lösungen in der Lage sind, in Echtzeit alle toleranzverletzenden Primitive zwischen zwei komplexen geometrischen Objekten, bestehend aus jeweils vielen hunderttausend Primitiven, zu berechnen. rnrnIm dritten Teil präsentieren wir eine neuartige, speicheroptimierte Datenstruktur zur Verwaltung der Zellinhalte der zuvor verwendeten Uniform Grids. Wir bezeichnen diese Datenstruktur als Shrubs. Bisherige Ansätze zur Speicheroptimierung von Uniform Grids beziehen sich vor allem auf Hashing Methoden. Diese reduzieren aber nicht den Speicherverbrauch der Zellinhalte. In unserem Anwendungsfall haben benachbarte Zellen oft ähnliche Inhalte. Unser Ansatz ist in der Lage, den Speicherbedarf der Zellinhalte eines Uniform Grids, basierend auf den redundanten Zellinhalten, verlustlos auf ein fünftel der bisherigen Größe zu komprimieren und zur Laufzeit zu dekomprimieren.rnrnAbschießend zeigen wir, wie unsere Lösung zur Berechnung aller toleranzverletzenden Primitive Anwendung in der Praxis finden kann. Neben der reinen Abstandsanalyse zeigen wir Anwendungen für verschiedene Problemstellungen der Pfadplanung.

Comparative assessment of conventional and self-ligating appliances on the effect of mandibular intermolar distance in adolescent nonextraction patients: a single-center randomized controlled trial

Our aim in this study was to compare intermolar widths after alignment of crowded mandibular dental arches in nonextraction adolescent patients between conventional and self-ligating brackets.