Modelagem, simulação e otimização operacional de unidades de síntese de metanol

A indústria de processos químicos tem sofrido consideráveis transformações devido ao acirramento da competitividade. Importantes progressos tecnológicos têm sido atingidos através de técnicas de modelagem, simulação e otimização visando o aumento da lucratividade e melhoria contínua nos processos industriais. Neste contexto, as plantas de metanol, um dos mais importantes produtos petroquímicos, podem ser destacadas. Atualmente, a principal matéria-prima para obtenção de metanol é o gás natural. A produção do metanol é caracterizada por três etapas: geração de gás de síntese, conversão do gás de síntese em metanol (unidade de síntese ou loop de síntese) e purificação do produto na especificação requerida. Os custos fixos e variáveis da unidade de síntese são fortemente dependentes das variáveis operacionais, como temperatura, pressão, razão de reciclo e composição da carga. Desta forma, foi desenvolvido um conjunto de modelos e algoritmos computacionais para representar matematicamente unidades de síntese de metanol. O modelo apresenta operações unitárias associadas aos seguintes equipamentos: divisores de correntes, misturadores de correntes, compressores, trocadores de calor, vasos de flash e reatores. Inicialmente, foi proposto um simulador estacionário, que serviu como base para um pseudo-estacionário, o qual contempla a desativação do catalisador por sinterização térmica. Os simuladores foram criados segundo uma arquitetura seqüencial modular e empregou-se o método de substituição sucessiva para a convergência dos reciclos. O estudo envolveu dois fluxogramas típicos, um constituído por reatores adiabáticos em série, enquanto o outro constituído por um reator tipo quench. Uma análise do efeito das principais variáveis operacionais foi realizada para o reator e para o loop de síntese. Estudou-se também o efeito da desativação do catalisador ao longo do tempo. Uma ferramenta de otimização operacional foi empregada para alcançar a máxima produção manipulando as injeções de carga fria na entrada dos leitos catalíticos. Formulou-se também um problema de maximização do lucro em função da otimização de paradas da unidade para troca do catalisador. Os resultados obtidos apontam que a ferramenta desenvolvida é promissora para a compreensão e otimização da unidade objeto deste estudo

Estimation of catalyst activity profiles and deactivation parameters from reactor operating data with applications to naphtha reforming

Techniques are developed for estimating activity profiles in fixed bed reactors and catalyst deactivation parameters from operating reactor data. These techniques are applicable, in general, to most industrial catalytic processes. The catalytic reforming of naphthas is taken as a broad example to illustrate the estimation schemes and to signify the physical meaning of the kinetic parameters of the estimation equations. The work is described in two parts. Part I deals with the modeling of kinetic rate expressions and the derivation of the working equations for estimation. Part II concentrates on developing various estimation techniques.

Part I: The reactions used to describe naphtha reforming are dehydrogenation and dehydroisomerization of cycloparaffins; isomerization, dehydrocyclization and hydrocracking of paraffins; and the catalyst deactivation reactions, namely coking on alumina sites and sintering of platinum crystallites. The rate expressions for the above reactions are formulated, and the effects of transport limitations on the overall reaction rates are discussed in the appendices. Moreover, various types of interaction between the metallic and acidic active centers of reforming catalysts are discussed as characterizing the different types of reforming reactions.

Part II: In catalytic reactor operation, the activity distribution along the reactor determines the kinetics of the main reaction and is needed for predicting the effect of changes in the feed state and the operating conditions on the reactor output. In the case of a monofunctional catalyst and of bifunctional catalysts in limiting conditions, the cumulative activity is sufficient for predicting steady reactor output. The estimation of this cumulative activity can be carried out easily from measurements at the reactor exit. For a general bifunctional catalytic system, the detailed activity distribution is needed for describing the reactor operation, and some approximation must be made to obtain practicable estimation schemes. This is accomplished by parametrization techniques using measurements at a few points along the reactor. Such parametrization techniques are illustrated numerically with a simplified model of naphtha reforming.

To determine long term catalyst utilization and regeneration policies, it is necessary to estimate catalyst deactivation parameters from the the current operating data. For a first order deactivation model with a monofunctional catalyst or with a bifunctional catalyst in special limiting circumstances, analytical techniques are presented to transform the partial differential equations to ordinary differential equations which admit more feasible estimation schemes. Numerical examples include the catalytic oxidation of butene to butadiene and a simplified model of naphtha reforming. For a general bifunctional system or in the case of a monofunctional catalyst subject to general power law deactivation, the estimation can only be accomplished approximately. The basic feature of an appropriate estimation scheme involves approximating the activity profile by certain polynomials and then estimating the deactivation parameters from the integrated form of the deactivation equation by regression techniques. Different bifunctional systems must be treated by different estimation algorithms, which are illustrated by several cases of naphtha reforming with different feed or catalyst composition.

Blue frontiers: managing the environmental costs of aquaculture

The report begins with an overview of the current status of world aquaculture. It then goes on to describe an approach for estimating the current combined biophysical resource demands of aquaculture for producer countries and regions. Following a comparison of these results with those available for other animal food production sectors the report then examines the consequences of likely future trends in production on the environmental impacts of aquaculture. Finally, the policy implications of the report’s findings are discussed along with the research agenda that should be pursued to meet the challenge of sustainable food production.

A field guide for Agency staff operating the SIMRAD EY500 portable scientific echosounder. 2nd draft 3rd August 1999

This manual has been produced by members of the national acoustics group (NAG) and represents the first in a series of outputs designed to promote co-ordination and consistency in Agency hydroacoustic surveys. It is designed as a field guide for Agency staff operating the SIMRAD EY500 portable scientific echosounder. It should be simplistic enough for the newcomer to EY500 to be able to set up and run a mobile hydroacoustic survey with some knowledge of the supporting theory. It should act as guidance for standardisation of survey procedures providing a concise list of settings and recommendations that can be used as a quick reference guide in the field. This manual condenses 5 years of practical experience of surveying fish populations using Simrad hardware and software for surveying large rivers and still waters throughout England and Wales. This document should be used as a companion to the manufacturers instruction manual and not act as a substitute for it.

Management of fishing capacity in a spiny lobster (Panulirus argus) fishery: analysis of trap performance under the Florida spiny lobster Trap Certificate Program

The spiny lobster (Panulirus argus) fishery in Florida was operationally inefficient and overcapitalized throughout the 1980s. The Trap Certificate Program initiated during the 1992–93 season was intended to increase gear efficiency by reducing the number of traps being used while maintaining the same catch level in the fishery. A depletion model was used to estimate trap fishing efficiency. The costs of fishing operations and the value of the catch were used to determine the revenues generated by the fishery under different trap levels. A negative functional relationship was found between the catchability coefficient and the number of traps, which indicated that the fewer traps operating under the trap reduction scheme were more efficient. Also, the financial analyses indicated that the higher catch efficiency resulting from fewer traps generated significantly higher revenues, despite lower stock abundances. This study indicates that the trap reduction program had improved a situation that would have been much worse.

Desenvolvimento de técnicas de otimização da programação das limpezas de redes de trocadores de calor

Trocadores de calor são equipamentos muito utilizados na indústria de processos com o objetivo de modificar a temperatura e/ou o estado físico de correntes materiais. Uma rede de trocadores de calor pode ser definida como um grupo de trocadores de calor interligados, a fim de reduzir as necessidades de energia de um sistema. No entanto, durante a operação de uma rede, a eficiência térmica dos trocadores de calor diminui devido à deposição. Esse efeito promove o aumento dos custos de combustível e das emissões de carbono. Uma alternativa para mitigar este problema baseia-se no estabelecimento de uma programação das limpezas dos trocadores de calor durante a operação de rede. Este tipo de abordagem ocasiona uma situação na qual ocorre um conflito de escolha: a limpeza de um trocador de calor pode recuperar a sua eficiência térmica, mas implica custos adicionais, tais como, mão-de-obra, produtos químicos, etc. Além disso, durante a limpeza, o trocador de calor tem de ser contornado por uma corrente de by-pass, o que aumenta temporariamente o consumo de energia. Neste contexto, o presente trabalho tem como objetivo explorar diferentes técnicas de otimização envolvendo métodos estocásticos e heurísticos. Com este objetivo foi desenvolvido um conjunto de códigos computacionais integrados que envolvem a simulação pseudo-estacionária do comportamento da rede relacionado com incrustações e a otimização da programação das limpezas deste tipo de sistema. A solução do problema indica os períodos de tempo para a limpeza de cada trocador de calor. Na abordagem estocástica empregada, os parâmetros do algoritmo genético, como probabilidade de crossover e probabilidade de mutação, foram calibrados para o presente problema. A abordagem heurística desenvolvida se deu através da sequência do conjunto de movimentos zero, um e dois. De forma alternativa, desenvolveu-se a metodologia heurística recursiva na qual os conjuntos de movimentos um e dois foram empregados recursivamente. Também foi desenvolvida a abordagem híbrida que consistiu em diferentes combinações da metodologia estocástica e heurística. A análise comparativa entre as metodologias empregadas teve como objetivo avaliar a abordagem mais adequada para o presente problema da programação das limpezas em termos de função objetivo e esforço computacional. O desempenho da abordagem proposta foi explorado através de uma série de exemplos, incluindo uma refinaria real brasileira. Os resultados foram promissores, indicando que as técnicas de otimização analisadas neste trabalho podem ser abordagens interessantes para operações que envolvam redes de trocadores de calor. Dentre as abordagens de otimização analisadas, a metodologia heurística desenvolvida no presente trabalho apresentou os melhores resultados se mostrando competitiva frente às abordagens comparadas da literatura

Fisheries co-management and transaction costs

Fisheries co-management is increasingly seen as a solution to the problems of resource use conflicts and overexploitation. The importance of transactions costs may not have been given adequate attention. The transaction costs are 1) information costs, 2) collective decisionmaking tools, and 3) collective operational costs. The various components of transaction costs of fisheries co-management systems are described in this paper. These costs need to be determined for evaluating the feasibility of a co-managed fishery compared to a centrally managed one.

A Low-level Geographic Information System for coastal zone management, with application to Brunei Darussalam. Part II:: Economic analysis of trawling in Brunei Darussalam

Economic analysis of the trawl fishery of Brunei Darussalam was conducted using cost and returns analysis and based on an economic survey of trawlers and B:RUN, a low-level geographic information system. Profitability indicators were generated for the trawl fleet under various economic and operational scenarios. The results show that financial profits are earned by trawlers which operate off Muara, particularly those with high vessel capacity, and that these profits could be further enhanced. On the other hand, a similar fleet operating off Tutong would generate profits due mainly to high fish biomass. Trawling operations offshore are deemed financially unfeasible. Incorporating realistic opportunity costs and externalities for existing trawl operations off Muara results in economic losses.

Reducing feed costs in semi-intensive finfish culture: an update on mixed feeding schedules and an idea for enhancing endogenous food supply in ponds

Some interesting ideas on improving the cost-effectiveness of feeding in semi-intensive finfish aquaculture are presented.

Research on operating conditions at the catalytic reactor for the combined removal of NOx and PCDD/PCDFs from MWI plants

The management of municipal solid waste (MSW), particularly the role of incineration, is currently a subject of public debate. Incineration shows to be a good alternative of reducing the volume of waste and eliminating certain infectious components. Moreover, Municipal Waste Incinerators (MWI), are reported to be highly hygienic and apart from that MWIs are immediately effective in terms of transport (incinerators can be built close to the waste sources) and incineration's nature. Nevertheless, the emissions of many hazardous substances make the Municipal Waste Incineration (MWI) plants to be unpopular. Metals (especially lead, manganese, cadmium, chromium and mercury) are concentrated in fly and bottom ashes. Furthermore, incomplete combustion produces a wide variety of potentially hazardous organic compounds, such as aldehydes, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), chlorinated hydrocarbons including polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDD) and dibenzofurans (PCDF), and even acid gases, including NOx. Many of these hazardous substances are carcinogenic and some have direct systemic toxicity.