Adaptive capacity and learning to learn as leverage for social-ecological resilience

Ioan Fazey, John A. Fazey, Joern Fischer, Kate Sherren, John Warren, Reed F. Noss, Stephen R. Dovers (2007) Adaptive capacity and learning to learn as leverage for social?ecological resilience. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 5(7),375-380. RAE2008

Ubuntu, Jesus, and Earth: Integrating African Religion and Christianity in Ecological Ethics

Africa faces problems of ecological devastation caused by economic exploitation, rapid population growth, and poverty. Capitalism, residual colonialism, and corruption undermine Africa's efforts to forge a better future. The dissertation describes how in Africa the mounting ecological crisis has religious, political, and economic roots that enable and promote social and environmental harm. It presents the thesis that religious traditions, including their ethical expressions, can effectively address the crisis, ameliorate its impacts, and advocate for social and environmental betterment, now and in the future. First, it examines African traditional religion and Christian teaching, which together provide the foundation for African Christianity. Critical examination of both religious worldviews uncovers their complementary emphases on human responsibility toward planet Earth and future generations. Second, an analysis of the Gwembe Tonga of Chief Simamba explores the interconnectedness of all elements of the universe in African cosmologies. In Africa, an interdependent, participatory relationship exists between the world of animals, the world of humans, and the Creator. In discussing the annual lwiindi (rain calling) ceremony of Simamba, the study explores ecological overtones of African religions. Such rituals illustrate the involvement of ancestors and high gods in maintaining ecological integrity. Third, the foundation of the African morality of abundant life is explored. Across Sub-Saharan Africa, ancestors' teachings are the foundation of morality; ancestors are guardians of the land. A complementary teaching that Christ is the ecological ancestor of all life can direct ethical responses to the ecological crisis. Fourth, the eco-social implications of ubuntu (what it means to be fully human) are examined. Some aspects of ubuntu are criticized in light of economic inequalities and corruption in Africa. However, ubuntu can be transformed to advocate for eco-social liberation. Fifth, the study recognizes that in some cases conflicts exist between ecological values and religious teachings. This conflict is examined in terms of the contrast between awareness of socioeconomic problems caused by population growth, on the one hand, and advocacy of a traditional African morality of abundant children, on the other hand. A change in the latter religious view is needed since overpopulation threatens sustainable living and the future of Earth. The dissertation concludes that the identification of Jesus with African ancestors and theological recognition of Jesus as the ecological ancestor, woven together with ubuntu, an ethic of interconnectedness, should characterize African consciousness and promote resolution of the socio-ecological crisis.

Towards Eco-Dharma: The Contribution of Gandhian Thought to Ecological Ethics in India

Ecological concern prompts poor and indigenous people of India to consider how a society can ensure both protection of nature and their rightful claim for a just and sustainable future. Previous discussions defended the environment while ignoring the struggles of the poor for sustenance and their religious traditions and ethical values. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi addressed similar socio-ecological concerns by adopting and adapting traditional religious and ethical notions to develop strategies for constructive, engaged resistance. The dissertation research and analysis verifies the continued relevance of the Gandhian understanding of dharma (ethics) in contemporary India as a basis for developing eco-dharma (eco-ethics) to link closely development, ecology, and religious values. The method of this study is interpretive, analytical, and critical. Françoise Houtart’s social analytical method is used to make visible and to suggest how to overcome social tensions from the perspective of marginalized and exploited peoples in India. The Indian government's development initiatives create a nexus between the eco-crisis and economic injustice, and communities’ responses. The Chipko movement seeks to protect the Himalayan forests from commercial logging. The Narmada Bachao Andolan strives to preserve the Narmada River and its forests and communities, where dam construction causes displacement. The use of Gandhian approaches by these movements provides a framework for integrating ecological concerns with people's struggles for survival. For Gandhi, dharma is a harmony of satya (truth), ahimsa (nonviolence), and sarvodaya (welfare of all). Eco-dharma is an integral, communitarian, and ecologically sensitive ethical paradigm. The study demonstrates that the Gandhian notion of dharma, implemented through nonviolent satyagraha (firmness in promoting truth), can direct community action that promotes responsible economic structures and the well-being of the biotic community and the environment. Eco-dharma calls for solidarity, constructive resistance, and ecologically and economically viable communities. The dissertation recommends that for a sustainable future, India must combine indigenous, appropriate, and small- or medium-scale industries as an alternative model of development in order to help reduce systemic poverty while enhancing ecological well-being.

The broad-scale distribution and abundance of Scyphomedusae in Irish waters

Scyphomedusae are receiving increasing recognition as key components of marine ecosystems. However, information on their distribution and abundance beyond coastal waters is generally lacking. Organising access to such data is critical to effectively transpose findings from laboratory, mesocosm and small scale studies to the scale of ecological processes. These data are also required to identify the risks of detrimental impacts of jellyfish blooms on human activities. In Ireland, such risks raise concerns among the public, but foremost amongst the professionals of the aquaculture and fishing sectors. The present work looked at the opportunity to get access to new information on the distribution of jellyfish around Ireland mostly by using existing infrastructures and programmes. The analysis of bycatch data collected during the Irish groundfish surveys provided new insights into the distribution of Pelagia noctiluca over an area >160 000 km2, a scale never reached before in a region of the Northeast Atlantic (140 sampling stations). Similarly, 4 years of data collected during the Irish Sea juvenile gadoid fish survey provided the first spatially, explicit, information on the abundance of Aurelia aurita and Cyanea spp. (Cyanea capillata and Cyanea lamarckii) throughout the Irish Sea (> 200 sampling events). In addition, the use of ships of opportunity allowed repeated samplings (N = 37) of an >100 km long transect between Dublin (Ireland) and Holyhead (Wales, UK), therefore providing two years of seasonal monitoring of the occurrence of scyphomedusae in that region. Finally, in order to inform the movements of C. capillata in an area where many negative interactions with bathers occur, the horizontal and vertical movements of 5 individual C. capillata were investigated through acoustic tracking.

The politics of hazard: imminent critique and deconstruction of ecological modernisation in Ireland

This dissertation sets out to provide immanent critique and deconstruction of ecological modernisation or ecomodernism.It does so, from a critical social theory approach, in order to correctly address the essential issues at the heart of the environmental crisis that ecomodernism purports to address. This critical approach argues that the solution to the environmental crisis can only be concretely achieved by recognising its root cause as being foremost the issue of material interaction between classes in society, and not simply between society and nature in any structurally meaningful way. Based on a metaphysic of false dualism, ecological modernisation attributes a materiality of exchange value relations to issues of society, while simultaneously offering a non- material ontology to issues of nature. Thus ecomodernism serves asymmetrical relations of power whereby, as a polysemic policy discourse, it serves the material interests of those who have the power to impose abstract interpretations on the materiality of actual phenomena. The research of this dissertation is conducted by the critical evaluation of the empirical data from two exemplary Irish case studies. Discovery of the causal processes of the various public issues in the case studies and thereafter the revelation of the meaning structures under- pinning such causal processes, is a theoretically- driven task requiring analysis of those social practices found in the cognitive, cultural and structural constitutions respectively of actors, mediations and systems.Therefore, the imminent critique of the case study paradigms serves as a research strategy for comprehending Ireland’s nature- society relations as influenced essentially by a systems (techno- corporatist) ecomodernist discourse. Moreover, the deconstruction of this systems ideological discourse serves not only to demonstrate how weak ecomodernism practically undermines its declared ecological objectives, but also indicates how such objectives intervene as systemic contradictions at the cultural heart of Ireland’s late modernisation.

National food consumption surveys: micronutrient intakes and the role of fortified foods in the diets of Irish pre-school children and adults

This research investigated the micronutrient intakes of Irish pre-school children (1-4 years) and adults (18-64 years) and the role that fortified foods (FFs) play in the diets of these population groups. Dietary intake data were collected as part of the National Pre-school Nutrition Survey (NPNS) (2010-2011) and the National Adult Nutrition Survey (NANS) (2008-2010) using 4-day food and beverage records. Nutrient intakes were estimated using WISP©, which encompasses McCance and Widdowson’s The Composition of Foods and the Irish Food Composition Database. A FF is one in which one or more micronutrients are added. Key dietary sources of micronutrients in NPNS and NANS were “milk”, “meat & meat products”, “breakfast cereals”, “fruit & fruit juices” and “breads”. In general, intakes of most micronutrients were adequate with the exception of iron (1 year old children and adult women) and vitamin D (in all population groups). Small proportions of the pre-school population had intakes which exceeded the upper level (UL) (zinc: 11%, folic acid: 5%, retinol: 4%, copper: 2%). Less than 2% of adults had intakes of iron, copper, zinc and vitamin B6 which exceeded the UL. FFs were consumed by 97% of pre-school children and 82% of adults, representing 17% and 9% of mean daily energy intake respectively. Relative to energy intake, FFs contributed substantially greater proportions to intakes of key micronutrients, such as iron and vitamin D. FFs were effective in reducing the prevalence of inadequate micronutrient intakes in these population groups, particularly for iron in women and 1 year old children. FFs made a significant contribution to folate intake in women of childbearing age (72µg). FFs contributed greater proportions of carbohydrate and lower proportions of fat to the diets of consumers. Voluntary addition of nutrients to foods did not contribute appreciably to intakes exceeding the UL in these population groups.

From respect for nature to agency as realisation in response to the ecological emergency

'The ecological emergency’ describes both our emergence into, and the way we relate within, a set of globally urgent circumstances, brought about through anthropogenic impact. I identify two phases to this emergency. Firstly, there is the anthropogenic impact itself, interpreted through various conceptual models. Secondly, however, is the increasingly entrenched commitment to divergent conceptual positions, that leads to a growing disparateness in attitudes, and a concurrent difficulty with finding any grounds for convergence in response. I begin by reviewing the environmental ethics literature in order to clarify which components of the implicit narratives and beliefs of different positions create the foundations for such disparateness of views. I identify the conceptual frameworks through which moral agency and human responsibility are viewed, and that justify an ethical response to the ecological emergency. In particular, I focus on Paul Taylor's thesis of 'respect for nature' as a framework for revising both the idea that we are ‘moral’ and the idea that we are ‘agents’ in this unique way, and I open to question the idea that any response to the ecological emergency need be couched in ethical terms. This revision leads me to formulate an alternative conceptual model that makes use of Timothy Morton’s idea of enmeshment. I propose that we dramatically revise our idea of moral agency using the idea of enmeshment as a starting point. I develop an alternative framework that locates our capacity for responsibility within our capacity for realisation, both in the sense of understanding, and of making real, sets of conditions within our enmeshment. I draw parallels between this idea of ‘realisation as agency’ and the work of Dōgen and other non-dualists. I then propose a revised understanding of ‘the good’ of systems from a biophysical perspective, and compare this with certain features of Asian traditions of thought. I consider the practical implications of these revisions, and I conclude that the act of paying close attention, or realising, contains our agency, as does the attitude, or manner, with which we focus. This gives us the basis for a convergent response to the ecological emergency: the way of our engagement that is the key to responding to the ecological emergency

Vulnerability and adaptation to climate change in Guam – a case-study of the perceptions, attitudes, behaviors, and knowledge of a small rural community towards their watershed

This thesis argues that examining the attitudes, perceptions, behaviors, and knowledge of a community towards their specific watershed can reveal their social vulnerability to climate change. Understanding and incorporating these elements of the human dimension in coastal zone management will lead to efficient and effective strategies that safeguard the natural resources for the benefit of the community. By having healthy natural resources, ecological and community resilience to climate change will increase, thus decreasing vulnerability. In the Pacific Ocean, climate and SLR are strongly modulated by the El Niño Southern Oscillation. SLR is three times the global average in the Western Pacific Ocean (Merrifield and Maltrud 2011; Merrifield 2011). Changes in annual rainfall in the Western North Pacific sub‐region from 1950-2010 show that islands in the east are getting much less than in the past, while the islands in the west are getting slightly more rainfall (Keener et al. 2013). For Guam, a small island owned by the United States and located in the Western Pacific Ocean, these factors mean that SLR is higher than any other place in the world and will most likely see increased precipitation. Knowing this, the social vulnerability may be examined. Thus, a case-study of the community residing in the Manell and Geus watersheds was conducted on the island of Guam. Measuring their perceptions, attitudes, knowledge, and behaviors should bring to light their vulnerability to climate change. In order to accomplish this, a household survey was administered from July through August 2010. Approximately 350 surveys were analysed using SPSS. To supplement this quantitative data, informal interviews were conducted with the elders of the community to glean traditional ecological knowledge about perceived climate change. A GIS analysis was conducted to understand the physical geography of the Manell and Geus watersheds. This information about the human dimension is valuable to CZM managers. It may be incorporated into strategic watershed plans, to better administer the natural resources within the coastal zone. The research conducted in this thesis is the basis of a recent watershed management plan for the Guam Coastal Management Program (see King 2014).

Geography and Genetics of Ecological Speciation in Pea Aphids

During ecological speciation, divergent natural selection drives evolution of ecological specialization and genetic differentiation of populations on alternate environments. Populations diverging onto the same alternate environments may be geographically widespread, so that divergence may occur at an array of locations simultaneously. Spatial variation in the process of divergence may produce a pattern of differences in divergence among locations called the Geographic Mosaic of Divergence. Diverging populations may vary in their degree of genetic differentiation and ecological specialization among locations. My dissertation examines the pattern and evolutionary processes of divergence in pea aphids (Acyrthosiphon pisum) on alfalfa (Medicago sativa) and clover (Trifolium pretense). In Chapter One, I examined differences among North American aphid populations in genetic differentiation at nuclear, sequence-based markers and in ecological specialization, measured as aphid fecundity on each host plant. In the East, aphids showed high host-plant associated ecological specialization and high genetic differentiation. In the West, aphids from clover were genetically indistinguishable from aphids on alfalfa, and aphids from clover were less specialized. Thus, the pattern of divergence differed among locations, suggesting a Geographic Mosaic of Divergence. In Chapter Two, I examined genomic heterogeneity in divergence in aphids on alfalfa and clover across North America using amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs). The degree of genetic differentiation varied greatly among markers, suggesting that divergent natural selection drives aphid divergence in all geographic locations. Three of the same genetic markers were identified as evolving under divergent selection in the eastern and western regions, and additional divergent markers were identified in the East. In Chapter Three, I investigated population structure of aphids in North America, France, and Sweden using AFLPs. Aphids on the same host plant were genetically similar across many parts of their range, so the evolution of host plant specialization does not appear to have occurred independently in every location. While aphids on alfalfa and clover were genetically differentiated in most locations, aphids from alfalfa and clover were genetically similar in both western North America and Sweden. High gene flow from alfalfa onto clover may constrain divergence in these locations.

Bioenergetic and ecological consequences of diet variability in Atlantic croaker Micropogonias undulatus

Atlantic croaker Micropogonias undulatus is a commercially and ecologically important bottom-associated fish that occurs in marine and estuarine systems from Cape Cod, MA to Mexico. I documented the temporal and spatial variability in the diet of Atlantic croaker in Chesapeake Bay and found that in the summer fish, particularly bay anchovies Anchoa mitchilli, make up at least 20% of the diet of croaker by weight. The use of a pelagic food source seems unusual for a bottom-associated fish such as croaker, but appears to be a crepuscular feeding habit that has not been previously detected. Thus, I investigated the bioenergetic consequences of secondary piscivory to the distribution of croaker, to the condition of individuals within the population and to the ecosystem. Generalized additive models revealed that the biomass of anchovy explained some of the variability in croaker occurrence and abundance in Chesapeake Bay. However, physical factors, specifically temperature, salinity, and seasonal dynamics were stronger determinants of croaker distribution than potential prey availability. To better understand the bioenergetic consequences of diet variability at the individual level, I tested the hypothesis that croaker feeding on anchovies would be in better condition than those feeding on polychaetes using a variety of condition measures that operate on multiple time scales, including RNA:DNA, Fulton's condition factor (K), relative weight (Wr), energy density, hepatosomatic index (HSI), and gonadosomatic index (GSI). Of these condition measures, several morphometric measures were significantly positively correlated with each other and with the percentage (by weight) of anchovy in croaker diets, suggesting that the type of prey eaten is important in improving the overall condition of individual croaker. To estimate the bioenergetic consequences of diet variability on growth and consumption in croaker, I developed and validated a bioenergetic model for Atlantic croaker in the laboratory. The application of this model suggested that croaker could be an important competitor with weakfish and striped bass for food resources during the spring and summer when population abundances of these three fishes are high in Chesapeake Bay. Even though anchovies made up a relatively small portion of croaker diet and only at certain times of the year, croaker consumed more anchovy at the population level than striped bass in all simulated years and nearly as much anchovy as weakfish. This indicates that weak trophic interactions between species are important in understanding ecosystem processes and should be considered in ecosystem-based management.

Relative growth of the limbs and trunk in sifakas: heterochronic, ecological, and functional considerations.

Limb, trunk, and body weight measurements were obtained for growth series of Milne-Edwards's diademed sifaka, Propithecus diadema edwardsi, and the golden-crowned sifaka, Propithecus tattersalli. Similar measures were obtained also for primarily adults of two subspecies of the western sifaka: Propithecus verreauxi coquereli, Coquerel's sifaka, and Propithecus verreauxi verreauxi, Verreaux's sifaka. Ontogenetic series for the larger-bodied P. d. edwardsi and the smaller-bodied P. tattersalli were compared to evaluate whether species-level differences in body proportions result from the differential extension of common patterns of relative growth. In bivariate plots, both subspecies of P. verreauxi were included to examine whether these taxa also lie along a growth trajectory common to all sifakas. Analyses of the data indicate that postcranial proportions for sifakas are ontogenetically scaled, much as demonstrated previously with cranial dimensions for all three species (Ravosa, 1992). As such, P. d. edwardsi apparently develops larger overall size primarily by growing at a faster rate, but not for a longer duration of time, than P. tattersalli and P. verreauxi; this is similar to results based on cranial data. A consideration of Malagasy lemur ecology suggests that regional differences in forage quality and resource availability have strongly influenced the evolutionary development of body-size variation in sifakas. On one hand, the rainforest environment of P. d. edwardsi imposes greater selective pressures for larger body size than the dry-forest environment of P. tattersalli and P. v. coquereli, or the semi-arid climate of P. v. verreauxi. On the other hand, as progressively smaller-bodied adult sifakas are located in the east, west, and northwest, this apparently supports suggestions that adult body size is set by dry-season constraints on food quality and distribution (i.e., smaller taxa are located in more seasonal habitats such as the west and northeast). Moreover, the fact that body-size differentiation occurs primarily via differences in growth rate is also due apparently to differences in resource seasonality (and juvenile mortality risk in turn) between the eastern rainforest and the more temperate northeast and west. Most scaling coefficients for both arm and leg growth range from slight negative allometry to slight positive allometry. Given the low intermembral index for sifakas, which is also an adaptation for propulsive hindlimb-dominated jumping, this suggests that differences in adult limb proportions are largely set prenatally rather than being achieved via higher rates of postnatal hindlimb growth.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Parasites of wild howlers (Alouatta spp.)

A literature review of howler parasites provides the basis for an overview of the ecological significance of parasite surveys in primates. Within this framework, we have added insights into the interactions between primate hosts and their parasites from a long-term study in Costa Rica. We collected fecal samples from mantled howlers (Alouatta palliata) over a 9-year period (19861994 inclusive) and analyzed them for parasite eggs, larvae, cysts, and oocysts. We found many misperceptions inherent in the typical methodology of primate parasite surveys and in the reporting of the findings. Our work in Costa Rica suggests that a snapshot effect occurs with most surveys. A static view does not reflect the dynamic and changing ecological interaction between host and parasite. We describe some problems with parasite data analyses that emphasize the need for long-term longitudinal surveys in wild primate groups.

Biological and ecological mechanisms supporting marine self-governance: The Seri Callo de Hacha Fishery in Mexico

My goal was to describe how biological and ecological factors give shape to fishing practices that can contribute to the successful self-governance of a small-scale fishing system in the Gulf of California, Mexico. The analysis was based on a comparison of the main ecological and biological indicators that fishers claim to use to govern their day-to-day decision making about fishing and data collected in situ. I found that certain indicators allow fishers to learn about differences and characteristics of the resource system and its units. Fishers use such information to guide their day-to-day fishing decisions. More importantly, these decisions appear unable to shape the reproductive viability of the fishery because no indicators were correlated to the reproductive cycle of the target species. As a result, the fishing practices constitute a number of mechanisms that might provide short-term buffering capacity against perturbations or stress factors that otherwise would threaten the overall sustainability and self-governance of the system. The particular biological circumstances that shape the harvesting practices might also act as a precursor of self-governance because they provide fishers with enough incentives to meet the costs of organizing the necessary rule structure that underlies a successful self-governance system.

Institutional and ecological interplay for successful self-governance of community-based fisheries

The goal of this paper is to improve our understanding of the role of institutional arrangements and ecological factors that facilitate the emergence and sustainability of successful collective action in small-scale fishing social-ecological systems. Using a modified logistic growth function, we simulate how ecological factors (i.e. carrying capacity) affect small-scale fishing communities with varying degrees of institutional development (i.e. timeliness to adopt new institutions and the degree to which harvesting effort is reduced), in their ability to avoid overexploitation. Our results show that strong and timely institutions are necessary but not sufficient to maintain sustainable harvests over time. The sooner communities adopt institutions, and the stronger the institutions they adopt, the more likely they are to sustain the resource stock. Exactly how timely the institutions must be adopted, and by what amount harvesting effort must be diminished, depends on the ecological carrying capacity of the species at the particular location. Small differences in the carrying capacity between fishing sites, even under scenarios of similar institutional development, greatly affects the likelihood of effective collective action. © 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Eco-evolutionary feedbacks in community and ecosystem ecology: interactions between the ecological theatre and the evolutionary play.

Interactions between natural selection and environmental change are well recognized and sit at the core of ecology and evolutionary biology. Reciprocal interactions between ecology and evolution, eco-evolutionary feedbacks, are less well studied, even though they may be critical for understanding the evolution of biological diversity, the structure of communities and the function of ecosystems. Eco-evolutionary feedbacks require that populations alter their environment (niche construction) and that those changes in the environment feed back to influence the subsequent evolution of the population. There is strong evidence that organisms influence their environment through predation, nutrient excretion and habitat modification, and that populations evolve in response to changes in their environment at time-scales congruent with ecological change (contemporary evolution). Here, we outline how the niche construction and contemporary evolution interact to alter the direction of evolution and the structure and function of communities and ecosystems. We then present five empirical systems that highlight important characteristics of eco-evolutionary feedbacks: rotifer-algae chemostats; alewife-zooplankton interactions in lakes; guppy life-history evolution and nutrient cycling in streams; avian seed predators and plants; and tree leaf chemistry and soil processes. The alewife-zooplankton system provides the most complete evidence for eco-evolutionary feedbacks, but other systems highlight the potential for eco-evolutionary feedbacks in a wide variety of natural systems.