707 resultados para Biped locomotion


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Locomotor capacity is often considered an excellent measure of whole animal performance because it requires the integrated functioning of many morphological, physiological (and biochemical) traits. However, because studies tend to focus on either structural or functional suits of traits, we know little on whether and how morphological and physiological traits coevolve to produce adequate locomotor capacities. Hence, we investigate the evolutionary relationships between morphological and physiological parameters related to exercise physiology, using tropidurine lizards as a model. We employ a phylogenetic principal component analysis (PCA) to identify variable clusters (factors) related to morphology, energetic metabolism and muscle metabolism, and then analyze the relationships between these clusters and measures of locomotor performance, using two models (star and hierarchical phylogenies). Our data indicate that sprint performance is enhanced by simultaneous evolutionary tendencies affecting relative limb and tail size and physiological traits. Specifically, the high absolute sprint speeds exhibited by tropidurines from the sand dunes are explained by longer limbs, feet and tails and an increased proportion of glycolytic fibers in the leg muscle, contrasting with their lower capacity for overall oxidative metabolism [principal component (PC1)]. However, when sprint speeds are corrected for body size, performance correlates with a cluster (PC3) composed by moderate loads for activity metabolic rate and body size. The simultaneous measurement of morphological and physiological parameters is a powerful tool for exploring patterns of coadaptation and proposing morphophysiological associations that are not directly predictable from theory. This approach may trigger novel directions for investigating the evolution of form and function, particularly in the context of organismal performance.

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Purpose: This study has described and analysed the functional independence of the patients served in the haemodialysis services of a countryside town in the State of Sao Paulo, Brazil, using the Functional Independence Measure (FIM). Method: The population considered was that of 214 patients being treated with haemodialysis, assessed in 2011, by means of a social, demographic and clinical report, a Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and also the FIM. Results: The mean age of the population under study was 58.01 years, while the mean FIM point score was 118.38 points, showing a level of complete or modified independence within this population. Even though the level of dependence found has been low, this can be highlighted, within the locomotion domain, in the activity of going up and down stairs (10.28%). Age, complications arising from haemodialysis, and comorbidities show a negative correlation with FIM. Conclusion: Awareness of the level of functional independence of the patients being subjected to treatment with haemodialysis is essential in order to back up intervention for the improvement of nursing assistance provided to this population.

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Background: Recent studies have shown an important reduction of joint overload during locomotion in elderly women with knee osteoarthritis (OA) after short- term use of minimalist shoes. Our aim is to investigate the chronic effect of inexpensive and minimalist footwear on the clinical and functional aspects of OA and gait biomechanics of elderly women with knee OA. Methods/Design: Fifty-six elderly women with knee OA grade 2 or 3 (Kellgren and Lawrence) are randomized into blocks and allocated to either the intervention group, which will use flexible, non-heeled shoes-Moleca (R)-for six months for at least six hours daily, or the control group, which could not use these shoes. Neither group is undergoing physical therapy treatment throughout the intervention period. Moleca (R) is a women's double canvas, flexible, flat walking shoe without heels, with a 5-mm anti-slip rubber sole and a 3-mm internal wedge of ethylene vinyl acetate. Both groups will be followed for six months and will be assessed at baseline condition, after three months, and after six months (end of intervention). All the assessments will be performed by a physiotherapist that is blind to the group allocation. The primary outcome is the pain Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Osteoarthritis (WOMAC) score. The secondary outcomes are global WOMAC score; joint stiffness and disability WOMAC scores; knee pain with a visual analogue scale; walking distance in the six-minute walk test; Lequesne score; amount and frequency (number of days) of paracetamol (500 mg) intake over six months; knee adduction moment during gait; global medical assessment score; and global patient auto-assessment score. At baseline, all patients receive a diary to record the hours of daily use of the footwear intervention; every two weeks, the same physiotherapist makes phone calls to all patients in order to verify adherence to treatment. The statistical analysis will be based on intention to treat analysis, as well as general linear models of analysis of variance for repeated measure to detect treatment-time interactions (alpha = 5%). Discussion: This is the first randomized, clinical trial protocol to assess the chronic effect of minimalist footwear on the clinical and functional aspects and gait biomechanics of elderly women with knee osteoarthritis. We expect that the use of Moleca (R) shoes for six months will provide pain relief, reduction of the knee adduction moment when walking, and improve joint function in elderly women with knee OA, and that the treatment, thus, can be considered another inexpensive and easy-to-use option for conservative OA treatment.

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Serotonin (5-HT), opioids and the dorsal periaqueductal grey (DPAG) have been implicated in the pathophysiology of panic disorder. In order to study 5-HT-opioid interaction, the opioid antagonist naloxone was injected either systemically (1 mg/kg, i.p.) or intra-DPAG (0.2 mu g/0.5 mu L) to assess its interference with the effect of chronic fluoxetine (10 mg/kg, i.p., daily for 21 days) or of intra-DPAG 5-HT (8 mu g/0.5 mu L). Drug effects were measured in the one-escape task of the rat elevated T-maze, an animal model of panic. Pretreatment with systemic naloxone antagonized the lengthening of escape latency caused by chronic fluoxetine, considered a panicolytic-like effect that parallels the drug's therapeutic response in the clinics. Pretreatment with naloxone injected intra-DPAG antagonized both the panicolytic effect of chronic fluoxetine as well as that of 5-HT injected intra-DPAG. Neither the performance of the inhibitory avoidance task in the elevated T-maze, a model of generalized anxiety nor locomotion measured in a circular arena was affected by the above drug treatments. These results indicate that the panicolytic effect of fluoxetine is mediated by endogenous opioids that are activated by 5-HT in the DPAG. They also allow reconciliation between the serotonergic and opioidergic hypotheses of panic disorder pathophysiology.

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Background: The insect exoskeleton provides shape, waterproofing, and locomotion via attached somatic muscles. The exoskeleton is renewed during molting, a process regulated by ecdysteroid hormones. The holometabolous pupa transforms into an adult during the imaginal molt, when the epidermis synthe3sizes the definitive exoskeleton that then differentiates progressively. An important issue in insect development concerns how the exoskeletal regions are constructed to provide their morphological, physiological and mechanical functions. We used whole-genome oligonucleotide microarrays to screen for genes involved in exoskeletal formation in the honeybee thoracic dorsum. Our analysis included three sampling times during the pupal-to-adult molt, i.e., before, during and after the ecdysteroid-induced apolysis that triggers synthesis of the adult exoskeleton. Results: Gene ontology annotation based on orthologous relationships with Drosophila melanogaster genes placed the honeybee differentially expressed genes (DEGs) into distinct categories of Biological Process and Molecular Function, depending on developmental time, revealing the functional elements required for adult exoskeleton formation. Of the 1,253 unique DEGs, 547 were upregulated in the thoracic dorsum after apolysis, suggesting induction by the ecdysteroid pulse. The upregulated gene set included 20 of the 47 cuticular protein (CP) genes that were previously identified in the honeybee genome, and three novel putative CP genes that do not belong to a known CP family. In situ hybridization showed that two of the novel genes were abundantly expressed in the epidermis during adult exoskeleton formation, strongly implicating them as genuine CP genes. Conserved sequence motifs identified the CP genes as members of the CPR, Tweedle, Apidermin, CPF, CPLCP1 and Analogous-to-Peritrophins families. Furthermore, 28 of the 36 muscle-related DEGs were upregulated during the de novo formation of striated fibers attached to the exoskeleton. A search for cis-regulatory motifs in the 5′-untranslated region of the DEGs revealed potential binding sites for known transcription factors. Construction of a regulatory network showed that various upregulated CP- and muscle-related genes (15 and 21 genes, respectively) share common elements, suggesting co-regulation during thoracic exoskeleton formation. Conclusions: These findings help reveal molecular aspects of rigid thoracic exoskeleton formation during the ecdysteroid-coordinated pupal-to-adult molt in the honeybee.

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The escape response to electrical or chemical stimulation of the dorsal periaqueductal gray matter (DPAG) has been associated with panic attacks. In order to explore the validity of the DPAG stimulation model for the study of panic disorder, we determined if the aversive consequences of the electrical or chemical stimulation of this midbrain area can be detected subsequently in the elevated T-maze. This animal model, derived from the elevated plus-maze, permits the measurement in the same rat of a generalized anxiety- and a panic-related defensive response, i.e., inhibitory avoidance and escape, respectively. Facilitation of inhibitory avoidance, suggesting an anxiogenic effect, was detected in male Wistar rats (200-220 g) tested in the elevated T-maze 30 min after DPAG electrical stimulation (current generated by a sine-wave stimulator, frequency at 60 Hz) or after local microinjection of the GABA A receptor antagonist bicuculline (5 pmol). Previous electrical (5, 15, 30 min, or 24 h before testing) or chemical stimulation of this midbrain area did not affect escape performance in the elevated T-maze or locomotion in an open-field. No change in the two behavioral tasks measured by the elevated T-maze was observed after repetitive (3 trials) electrical stimulation of the DPAG. The results indicate that activation of the DPAG caused a short-lived, but selective, increase in defensive behaviors associated with generalized anxiety.

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PURPOSE: This study has described and analysed the functional independence of the patients served in the haemodialysis services of a countryside town in the State of São Paulo, Brazil, using the Functional Independence Measure (FIM). METHOD: The population considered was that of 214 patients being treated with haemodialysis, assessed in 2011, by means of a social, demographic and clinical report, a Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and also the FIM. RESULTS: The mean age of the population under study was 58.01 years, while the mean FIM point score was 118.38 points, showing a level of complete or modified independence within this population. Even though the level of dependence found has been low, this can be highlighted, within the locomotion domain, in the activity of going up and down stairs (10.28%). Age, complications arising from haemodialysis, and comorbidities show a negative correlation with FIM. CONCLUSION: Awareness of the level of functional independence of the patients being subjected to treatment with haemodialysis is essential in order to back up intervention for the improvement of nursing assistance provided to this population.

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L'attività di ricerca descritta in questa tesi fornisce linee guida per la progettazione di arti protesici inferiori, con particolare riferimento alla progettazione di protesi a basso costo. La necessità di efficienti protesi a basso costo risulta infatti sentita nei Paesi in via di sviluppo ma anche dalle fasce meno abbienti dei paesi occidentali. Al fine di comprendere le strategie adottate dall'apparato locomotorio per muoversi con le protesi sono analizzati il cammino fisiologico, le protesi presenti sul mercato ed infine le modalità con cui le loro prestazioni sono valutate. Con il presente lavoro, dopo aver osservato la presenza di una scarsa strutturazione della metodologia di progettazione che riguarda specialmente il settore del basso costo, si propone una metodologia il più possibile oggettiva e ripetibile tesa ad individuare quali sono gli aspetti essenziali di una protesi per garantire al paziente una buona qualità di vita. Solo questi aspetti dovranno essere selezionati al fine di ottenere la massima semplificazione della protesi e ridurre il più possibile i costi. Per la simulazione delle attività di locomozione, in particolare del cammino, è stato elaborato un apposito modello spaziale del cammino. Il modello proposto ha 7 membri rigidi (corrispondenti a piedi, tibie, femori e bacino) e 24 gradi di libertà. Le articolazioni e l'appoggio dei piedi al suolo sono modellati con giunti sferici. La pianta del piede consente tre possibili punti di appoggio. I criteri di realizzazione delle simulazioni possono comprendere aspetti energetici, cinematici e dinamici considerati come obiettivo dall'apparato locomotorio. In questa tesi vengono trattati in particolare gli aspetti cinematici ed è mostrata un'applicazione della procedura nella quale vengono dapprima identificati i riferimenti fisiologici del cammino e quindi simulato il cammino in presenza di una menomazione al ginocchio (eliminazione della flessione in fase di appoggio). Viene quindi lasciato a sviluppi futuri il completamento della procedura e la sua implementazione in un codice di calcolo.

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The treatment of the Cerebral Palsy (CP) is considered as the “core problem” for the whole field of the pediatric rehabilitation. The reason why this pathology has such a primary role, can be ascribed to two main aspects. First of all CP is the form of disability most frequent in childhood (one new case per 500 birth alive, (1)), secondarily the functional recovery of the “spastic” child is, historically, the clinical field in which the majority of the therapeutic methods and techniques (physiotherapy, orthotic, pharmacologic, orthopedic-surgical, neurosurgical) were first applied and tested. The currently accepted definition of CP – Group of disorders of the development of movement and posture causing activity limitation (2) – is the result of a recent update by the World Health Organization to the language of the International Classification of Functioning Disability and Health, from the original proposal of Ingram – A persistent but not unchangeable disorder of posture and movement – dated 1955 (3). This definition considers CP as a permanent ailment, i.e. a “fixed” condition, that however can be modified both functionally and structurally by means of child spontaneous evolution and treatments carried out during childhood. The lesion that causes the palsy, happens in a structurally immature brain in the pre-, peri- or post-birth period (but only during the firsts months of life). The most frequent causes of CP are: prematurity, insufficient cerebral perfusion, arterial haemorrhage, venous infarction, hypoxia caused by various origin (for example from the ingestion of amniotic liquid), malnutrition, infection and maternal or fetal poisoning. In addition to these causes, traumas and malformations have to be included. The lesion, whether focused or spread over the nervous system, impairs the whole functioning of the Central Nervous System (CNS). As a consequence, they affect the construction of the adaptive functions (4), first of all posture control, locomotion and manipulation. The palsy itself does not vary over time, however it assumes an unavoidable “evolutionary” feature when during growth the child is requested to meet new and different needs through the construction of new and different functions. It is essential to consider that clinically CP is not only a direct expression of structural impairment, that is of etiology, pathogenesis and lesion timing, but it is mainly the manifestation of the path followed by the CNS to “re”-construct the adaptive functions “despite” the presence of the damage. “Palsy” is “the form of the function that is implemented by an individual whose CNS has been damaged in order to satisfy the demands coming from the environment” (4). Therefore it is only possible to establish general relations between lesion site, nature and size, and palsy and recovery processes. It is quite common to observe that children with very similar neuroimaging can have very different clinical manifestations of CP and, on the other hand, children with very similar motor behaviors can have completely different lesion histories. A very clear example of this is represented by hemiplegic forms, which show bilateral hemispheric lesions in a high percentage of cases. The first section of this thesis is aimed at guiding the interpretation of CP. First of all the issue of the detection of the palsy is treated from historical viewpoint. Consequently, an extended analysis of the current definition of CP, as internationally accepted, is provided. The definition is then outlined in terms of a space dimension and then of a time dimension, hence it is highlighted where this definition is unacceptably lacking. The last part of the first section further stresses the importance of shifting from the traditional concept of CP as a palsy of development (defect analysis) towards the notion of development of palsy, i.e., as the product of the relationship that the individual however tries to dynamically build with the surrounding environment (resource semeiotics) starting and growing from a different availability of resources, needs, dreams, rights and duties (4). In the scientific and clinic community no common classification system of CP has so far been universally accepted. Besides, no standard operative method or technique have been acknowledged to effectively assess the different disabilities and impairments exhibited by children with CP. CP is still “an artificial concept, comprising several causes and clinical syndromes that have been grouped together for a convenience of management” (5). The lack of standard and common protocols able to effectively diagnose the palsy, and as a consequence to establish specific treatments and prognosis, is mainly because of the difficulty to elevate this field to a level based on scientific evidence. A solution aimed at overcoming the current incomplete treatment of CP children is represented by the clinical systematic adoption of objective tools able to measure motor defects and movement impairments. A widespread application of reliable instruments and techniques able to objectively evaluate both the form of the palsy (diagnosis) and the efficacy of the treatments provided (prognosis), constitutes a valuable method able to validate care protocols, establish the efficacy of classification systems and assess the validity of definitions. Since the ‘80s, instruments specifically oriented to the analysis of the human movement have been advantageously designed and applied in the context of CP with the aim of measuring motor deficits and, especially, gait deviations. The gait analysis (GA) technique has been increasingly used over the years to assess, analyze, classify, and support the process of clinical decisions making, allowing for a complete investigation of gait with an increased temporal and spatial resolution. GA has provided a basis for improving the outcome of surgical and nonsurgical treatments and for introducing a new modus operandi in the identification of defects and functional adaptations to the musculoskeletal disorders. Historically, the first laboratories set up for gait analysis developed their own protocol (set of procedures for data collection and for data reduction) independently, according to performances of the technologies available at that time. In particular, the stereophotogrammetric systems mainly based on optoelectronic technology, soon became a gold-standard for motion analysis. They have been successfully applied especially for scientific purposes. Nowadays the optoelectronic systems have significantly improved their performances in term of spatial and temporal resolution, however many laboratories continue to use the protocols designed on the technology available in the ‘70s and now out-of-date. Furthermore, these protocols are not coherent both for the biomechanical models and for the adopted collection procedures. In spite of these differences, GA data are shared, exchanged and interpreted irrespectively to the adopted protocol without a full awareness to what extent these protocols are compatible and comparable with each other. Following the extraordinary advances in computer science and electronics, new systems for GA no longer based on optoelectronic technology, are now becoming available. They are the Inertial and Magnetic Measurement Systems (IMMSs), based on miniature MEMS (Microelectromechanical systems) inertial sensor technology. These systems are cost effective, wearable and fully portable motion analysis systems, these features gives IMMSs the potential to be used both outside specialized laboratories and to consecutive collect series of tens of gait cycles. The recognition and selection of the most representative gait cycle is then easier and more reliable especially in CP children, considering their relevant gait cycle variability. The second section of this thesis is focused on GA. In particular, it is firstly aimed at examining the differences among five most representative GA protocols in order to assess the state of the art with respect to the inter-protocol variability. The design of a new protocol is then proposed and presented with the aim of achieving gait analysis on CP children by means of IMMS. The protocol, named ‘Outwalk’, contains original and innovative solutions oriented at obtaining joint kinematic with calibration procedures extremely comfortable for the patients. The results of a first in-vivo validation of Outwalk on healthy subjects are then provided. In particular, this study was carried out by comparing Outwalk used in combination with an IMMS with respect to a reference protocol and an optoelectronic system. In order to set a more accurate and precise comparison of the systems and the protocols, ad hoc methods were designed and an original formulation of the statistical parameter coefficient of multiple correlation was developed and effectively applied. On the basis of the experimental design proposed for the validation on healthy subjects, a first assessment of Outwalk, together with an IMMS, was also carried out on CP children. The third section of this thesis is dedicated to the treatment of walking in CP children. Commonly prescribed treatments in addressing gait abnormalities in CP children include physical therapy, surgery (orthopedic and rhizotomy), and orthoses. The orthotic approach is conservative, being reversible, and widespread in many therapeutic regimes. Orthoses are used to improve the gait of children with CP, by preventing deformities, controlling joint position, and offering an effective lever for the ankle joint. Orthoses are prescribed for the additional aims of increasing walking speed, improving stability, preventing stumbling, and decreasing muscular fatigue. The ankle-foot orthosis (AFO), with a rigid ankle, are primarily designed to prevent equinus and other foot deformities with a positive effect also on more proximal joints. However, AFOs prevent the natural excursion of the tibio-tarsic joint during the second rocker, hence hampering the natural leaning progression of the whole body under the effect of the inertia (6). A new modular (submalleolar) astragalus-calcanear orthosis, named OMAC, has recently been proposed with the intention of substituting the prescription of AFOs in those CP children exhibiting a flat and valgus-pronated foot. The aim of this section is thus to present the mechanical and technical features of the OMAC by means of an accurate description of the device. In particular, the integral document of the deposited Italian patent, is provided. A preliminary validation of OMAC with respect to AFO is also reported as resulted from an experimental campaign on diplegic CP children, during a three month period, aimed at quantitatively assessing the benefit provided by the two orthoses on walking and at qualitatively evaluating the changes in the quality of life and motor abilities. As already stated, CP is universally considered as a persistent but not unchangeable disorder of posture and movement. Conversely to this definition, some clinicians (4) have recently pointed out that movement disorders may be primarily caused by the presence of perceptive disorders, where perception is not merely the acquisition of sensory information, but an active process aimed at guiding the execution of movements through the integration of sensory information properly representing the state of one’s body and of the environment. Children with perceptive impairments show an overall fear of moving and the onset of strongly unnatural walking schemes directly caused by the presence of perceptive system disorders. The fourth section of the thesis thus deals with accurately defining the perceptive impairment exhibited by diplegic CP children. A detailed description of the clinical signs revealing the presence of the perceptive impairment, and a classification scheme of the clinical aspects of perceptual disorders is provided. In the end, a functional reaching test is proposed as an instrumental test able to disclosure the perceptive impairment. References 1. Prevalence and characteristics of children with cerebral palsy in Europe. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2002 Set;44(9):633-640. 2. Bax M, Goldstein M, Rosenbaum P, Leviton A, Paneth N, Dan B, et al. Proposed definition and classification of cerebral palsy, April 2005. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2005 Ago;47(8):571-576. 3. Ingram TT. A study of cerebral palsy in the childhood population of Edinburgh. Arch. Dis. Child. 1955 Apr;30(150):85-98. 4. Ferrari A, Cioni G. The spastic forms of cerebral palsy : a guide to the assessment of adaptive functions. Milan: Springer; 2009. 5. Olney SJ, Wright MJ. Cerebral Palsy. Campbell S et al. Physical Therapy for Children. 2nd Ed. Philadelphia: Saunders. 2000;:533-570. 6. Desloovere K, Molenaers G, Van Gestel L, Huenaerts C, Van Campenhout A, Callewaert B, et al. How can push-off be preserved during use of an ankle foot orthosis in children with hemiplegia? A prospective controlled study. Gait Posture. 2006 Ott;24(2):142-151.

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The relevance of human joint models was shown in the literature. In particular, the great importance of models for the joint passive motion simulation (i.e. motion under virtually unloaded conditions) was outlined. They clarify the role played by the principal anatomical structures of the articulation, enhancing the comprehension of surgical treatments, and in particular the design of total ankle replacement and ligament reconstruction. Equivalent rigid link mechanisms proved to be an efficient tool for an accurate simulation of the joint passive motion. This thesis focuses on the ankle complex (i.e. the anatomical structure composed of the tibiotalar and the subtalar joints), which has a considerable role in human locomotion. The lack of interpreting models of this articulation and the poor results of total ankle replacement arthroplasty have strongly suggested devising new mathematical models capable of reproducing the restraining function of each structure of the joint and of replicating the relative motion of the bones which constitute the joint itself. In this contest, novel equivalent mechanisms are proposed for modelling the ankle passive motion. Their geometry is based on the joint’s anatomical structures. In particular, the role of the main ligaments of the articulation is investigated under passive conditions by means of nine 5-5 fully parallel mechanisms. Based on this investigation, a one-DOF spatial mechanism is developed for modelling the passive motion of the lower leg. The model considers many passive structures constituting the articulation, overcoming the limitations of previous models which took into account few anatomical elements of the ankle complex. All the models have been identified from experimental data by means of optimization procedure. Then, the simulated motions have been compared to the experimental one, in order to show the efficiency of the approach and thus to deduce the role of each anatomical structure in the ankle kinematic behavior.

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This study deals with the function and regulation of programmed cell death, or apoptosis, in the development of the embryonic central nervous system of Drosophila melanogaster. The first part provides a description of apoptosis-deficient embryos, which showed that preventing apoptosis does not cause gross morphological defects in the CNS, as it appears well organized despite the presence of too many cells. An analysis of the incidence and pattern of apoptosis over the course of development discloses a partly very orderly pattern suggesting tight spatio-temporal control, but also reveals random apoptotic cells, which suggests a certain amount of plasticity in the embryo. This analysis also allowed precise identification of some of the dying neural cells in the embryo, and establishment of single cell models for studying regulation of segment-specific apoptosis in the embryonic CNS. In the second part of the work, further investigations into mechanisms controlling segment-specific apoptosis revealed the involvement of two Hox genes, Antennapedia (Antp) and Ultrabithorax (Ubx), in this process. Hox genes control the formation of segment-specific structures in their domains of expression, but also regulate organ and tissue morphogenesis. The study presented here shows that Antp and Ubx play antagonistic roles in motoneuron survival in the embryo. Ubx expression in the CNS is strongly upregulated at a late point in development, when most cells have begun to differentiate. This upregulation shortly precedes Ubx-dependent, segment-specific apoptosis of two differentiated motoneurons. It could further be demonstrated that Antp is required for proper development of the NB7-3 lineage and for survival of the NB7-3 motoneuron in the anterior thoracic segments. In segments where Antp and Ubx expression overlaps, Ubx counteracts the anti-apoptotic function of Antp, resulting in cell death. Thus, these two Hox genes play opposing roles in the survival of differentiated neurons in the late developing nervous system. They thereby contribute to establishment of correct connections between outward-projecting neurons and their targets, which is crucial for the assembly of functional neural circuits, as these have to fulfill region-specific locomotion and sensory requirements along the antero-posterior body axis.

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Zielgerichtete Orientierung ermöglicht es Lebewesen, überlebenswichtige Aufgaben, wie die Suche nach Ressourcen, Fortpflanzungspartnern und sicheren Plätzen zu bewältigen. Dafür ist es essentiell, die Umgebung sensorisch wahrzunehmen, frühere Erfahrungen zu speichern und wiederabzurufen und diese Informationen zu integrieren und in motorische Aktionen umzusetzen.rnWelche Neuronengruppen vermitteln zielgerichtete Orientierung im Gehirn einer Fliege? Welche sensorischen Informationen sind in einem gegebenen Kontext relevant und wie werden diese Informationen sowie gespeichertes Vorwissen in motorische Aktionen übersetzt? Wo findet im Gehirn der Übergang von der sensorischen Verarbeitung zur motorischen Kontrolle statt? rnDer Zentralkomplex, ein Verbund von vier Neuropilen des Zentralhirns von Drosophila melanogaster, fungiert als Übergang zwischen in den optischen Loben vorverarbeiteten visuellen Informationen und prämotorischem Ausgang. Die Neuropile sind die Protocerebralbrücke, der Fächerförmige Körper, der Ellipsoidkörper und die Noduli. rnIn der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass Fruchtfliegen ein räumliches Arbeitsgedächtnis besitzen. Dieses Gedächtnis kann aktuelle visuelle Information ersetzen, wenn die Sicht auf das Zielobjekt verloren geht. Dies erfordert die sensorische Wahrnehmung von Zielobjekten, die Speicherung der Position, die kontinuierliche Integration von Eigen-und Objektposition, sowie die Umsetzung der sensorischen Information in zielgerichtete Bewegung. Durch konditionale Expression von Tetanus Toxin mittels des GAL4/UAS/GAL80ts Systems konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Ringneurone, welche in den Ellipsoidkörper projizieren, für das Orientierungsgedächtnis notwendig sind. Außerdem konnte gezeigt werden, dass Fliegen, denen die ribosomale Serinkinase S6KII fehlt, die Richtung verlieren, sobald keine Objekte mehr sichtbar sind und, dass die partielle Rettung dieser Kinase ausschließlich in den Ringneuronenklassen R3 und R4d hinreichend ist, um das Gedächtnis wieder herzustellen. Bei dieser Gedächtnisleistung scheint es sich um eine idiothetische Form der Orientierung zu handeln. rn Während das räumliche Arbeitsgedächtnis nach Verschwinden von Objekten relevant ist, wurde in der vorliegende Arbeit auch die Vermittlung zielgerichteter Bewegung auf sichtbare Objekte untersucht. Dabei wurde die zentrale Frage bearbeitet, welche Neuronengruppen visuelle Orientierung vermitteln. Anhand von Gehirnstrukturmutanten konnte gezeigt werden, dass eine intakte Protocerebralbrücke notwendig ist, um Laufgeschwindigkeit, Laufaktivität und Zielgenauigkeit bei der Ansteuerung visueller Stimuli korrekt zu vermitteln. Dabei scheint das Horizontale Fasersystem, welches von der Protocerebralbrücke über den Fächerförmigen Körper auf den Zentralkomplex assoziierte Neuropile, die Ventralkörper, projiziert, notwendig für die lokomotorische Kontrolle und die zielgenaue Bewegung zu sein. Letzeres konnte zum einen durch Blockade der synaptischen Transmission anhand konditionaler Tetanus Toxin Expression mittels des GAL4/UAS/GAL80ts Systems im Horizontalen Fasersystem gezeigt werden;. zum anderen auch durch partielle Rettung der in den Strukturmutanten betroffenen Gene. rn Den aktuellen Ergebnissen und früheren Studien folgend, ergibt sich dabei ein Modell, wie zielgerichtete Bewegung auf visuelle Stimuli neuronal vermittelt werden könnte. Nach diesem Modell bildet die Protocerebralbrücke die Azimuthpositionen von Objekten ab und das Horizontale Fasersystem vermittelt die entsprechende lokomotorische Wo-Information für zielgerichtete Bewegungen. Die Eigenposition in Relation zum Zielobjekt wird über die Ringneurone und den Ellipsoidkörper vermittelt. Wenn das Objekt aus der Sicht verschwindet, kann die Relativposition ideothetisch ermittelt werden und integriert werden mit Vorinformation über das Zielobjekt, die im Fächerförmigen Körper abgelegt ist (Was-Information). Die resultierenden Informationen könnten dann über das Horizontale Fasersystem in den Ventralkörpern auf absteigende Neurone gelangen und in den Thorax zu den motorischen Zentren weitergeleitet werden.rn

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Viele Tiere wie etwa Geckos oder Laubfrösche können mittels ihrer Haftscheiben an Oberflächen kleben. Diese Haftscheiben ermöglichen es den Tieren, sich während ihrerrnFortbewegung an Oberflächen anzuheften und wieder zu lösen unabhängig von denrnvorherrschenden Umweltbedingungen. Frösche besitzen mikro- und nanostrukturierternsowie charakteristisch geformte Haftscheiben an Finger- und Zehenenden. Ihre besonderernevolutionäre Errungenschaft, sich stark und zugleich reversibel in sowohl trockenen alsrnauch feuchten Umgebungen anzuhaften, hat die Wissenschaft zur Nachahmung und Untersuchungrndieser Strukturen inspiriert. Zum besseren Verständnis der Mechanismen vonrnAnhaftung und Loslösung bei Laubfröschen wurden weiche, elastische und mikrostrukturierternOberflächen hergestellt, indem PDMS (Polydimethylsiloxan) auf einer Siliziummaskernmit Hexagonstruktur aufgetragen und vernetzt wurde. Dadurch wurden Anordnungenrnvon hexagonalen Mikrosäulen mit spezifischen geometrischen Eigenschaften undrnunterschiedlichen Kontaktgeometrien (normale, flache Form, T-Form und konkave Formrnder Säulenenden) erhalten. Um den Einfluss der van-der-Waals, hydrodynamischen,rnKapillar-und Adhäsionskräfte zu verstehen, wurden verschiedene experimentelle Ansätzernverfolgt: Die auf eine einzelne Säule wirkenden Adhäsionskräfte wurden mittelsrnRasterkraftmikroskopie gemessen. Dazu wurden speziell hergestellte kolloidale Sensorenrnverwendet. Diese Experimente wurden sowohl mit als auch ohne Flüssigkeitsfilm auf derrnSäule durchgeführt. Die Ergebnisse zeigten den Beitrag von Kapillarkraft und direktenrnKontaktkräften zur Adhäsionskraft bei Vorliegen eines Flüssigkeitsfilms. Die Adhäsionrnfiel umso größer aus, je weniger Flüssigkeit zwischen Sensor und Säule vorhanden war.rnIm Falle einer trockenen Adhäsion zeigte die Säule mit T-Form die höchste Adhäsion. Darndie Haftscheiben der Laubfrösche weich sind, können sie dynamisch ihre Form ändern,rnwas zu einer Änderung der hydrodynamischen Kraft zwischen Scheibe und Oberflächernführt. Der Einfluss der Oberflächenverformbarkeit auf die hydrodynamische Kraft wurderndaher am Modellsystem einer Kugel untersucht, welche sich einer weichen und ebenenrnOberfläche annähert. Dieses System wurde sowohl theoretisch über die Simulation finiterrnElemente als auch experimentell über die Messung mit kolloidalen Sonden untersucht.rnSowohl experimentelle Ergebnisse als auch die Simulationen ergaben eine Abnahme derrnhydrodynamischen Kraft bei Annäherung des kolloidalen Sensors an eine weiche undrnelastische Oberfläche. Beim Entfernen der Sensors von der Oberfläche verstärkte sichrndie hydrodynamische Anziehungskraft. Die Kraft, die zur Trennung eines Partikels von einer Oberfläche in Flüssigkeit notwendig ist, ist für weiche und elastischen Oberflächenrngrößer als für harte Oberflächen. In Bezug zur Bioadhäsion bei Laubfröschen konnternfestgestellt somit festgestellt werden, dass sich der hydrodynamische Anteil zur feuchtenrnBioadhäsion aufgrund der weichen Oberfläche erhöht. Weiterhin wurde der Einflussrndes Aspektverhältnisses der Säulen auf die Reibungskraft mittels eines kolloidalen Sensorsrnuntersucht. Gestreckte Säulen zeigten dabei eine höhere Reibung im Vergleich zu.rnSäulen mit einem gestreckten Hexagon als Querschnitt.

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GABA(A) receptors are the major ionotropic inhibitory neurotransmitter receptors. The endocannabinoid system is a lipid signaling network that modulates different brain functions. Here we show a direct molecular interaction between the two systems. The endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoyl glycerol (2-AG) potentiates GABA(A) receptors at low concentrations of GABA. Two residues of the receptor located in the transmembrane segment M4 of β(2) confer 2-AG binding. 2-AG acts in a superadditive fashion with the neurosteroid 3α, 21-dihydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one (THDOC) and modulates δ-subunit-containing receptors, known to be located extrasynaptically and to respond to neurosteroids. 2-AG inhibits motility in CB(1)/CB(2) cannabinoid receptor double-KO, whereas β(2)-KO mice show hypermotility. The identification of a functional binding site for 2-AG in the GABA(A) receptor may have far-reaching consequences for the study of locomotion and sedation.

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Sleepwalking (SW) corresponds to a complex sleep-associated behavior that includes locomotion, mental confusion, and amnesia. SW is present in about 10% of children and 2-3% of adults. In a retrospective series of 165 patients with Parkinson's disease (PD), we found adult-onset ("de novo") SW "de novo" in six (4%) of them. The aim of this study was to assess prospectively and systematically the frequency and characteristics of SW in PD patients. A questionnaire including items on sleep quality, sleep disorders, and specifically also SW and REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD), PD characteristics and severity, was sent to the members of the national PD patients organization in Switzerland. In the study, 36/417 patients (9%) reported SW, of which 22 (5%) had adult-onset SW. Patients with SW had significantly longer disease duration (p = 0.035), they reported more often hallucinations (p = 0.004) and nightmares (p = 0.003), and they had higher scores, suggestive for RBD in a validated questionnaire (p = 0.001). Patients with SW were also sleepier (trend to a higher Epworth Sleepiness Scale score, p = 0.055). Our data suggest that SW in PD patients is (1) more common than in the general population, and (2) is associated with RBD, nightmares, and hallucinations. Further studies including polysomnographic recordings are needed to confirm the results of this questionnaire-based analysis, to understand the relationship between SW and other nighttime wandering behaviors in PD, and to clarify the underlying mechanisms.