The effect of a clinical practicum on elementary education preservice teachers' development of reading expertise

The purpose of the study was to measure gains in the development of elementary education teachers’ reading expertise, to determine if there was a differential gain in reading expertise, and last, to examine their perceptions of acquiring reading expertise. This research is needed in the field of teacher education, specifically in the field of reading. A quasi-experimental design with a comparison group using pretest-posttest mixed-method, repeated measures was utilized. Quantitative data analysis measured the development of reading expertise of elementary preservice teachers compared to early childhood preservice teachers; and, was used to examine the differential gains in reading expertise. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted on pre- and posttest responses on a Protocol of Questions. Further analysis was conducted on five variables (miscue analysis, fluency analysis, data analysis, inquiry orientation and intelligent action) using a univariate analysis of variance (ANOVA). A one-way ANOVA was carried out on gain scores of the low and middle groups of elementary education preservice teachers. Qualitative data analysis suggested by Merriam (1989) and Miles and Huberman (1994) was used to determine if the elementary education preservice teachers perceived they had acquired the expertise to teach reading. Elementary education preservice teachers who participated in a supervised clinical practicum made significant gains in their development of reading expertise as compared to early childhood preservice teachers who did not make significant gains. Elementary education preservice teachers who were in the low and middle third levels of expertise at pretest demonstrated significant gains in reading expertise. Last, elementary education preservice teachers perceived they had acquired the expertise to teach reading. The study concluded that reading expertise can be developed in elementary education preservice teachers through participation in a supervised clinical practicum. The findings support the idea that preservice teachers who will be teaching reading to elementary students would benefit from a supervised clinical practicum.

The United States Congress and Venezuela's Hugo Chávez

The Soviet Union's dissolution in December 1991 marks the end of the Cold War and the elimination of the United States' main rival for global political-economic leadership. For decades U.S. foreign policymakers had formulated policies aimed at containing the spread of Soviet communism and Moscow's interventionist policies in the Americas. They now assumed that Latin American leftist revolutionary upheavals could also be committed to history. This study explores how Congress takes an active role in U.S. foreign policymaking when dealing with revolutionary changes in Latin America. This study finds that despite Chávez's vitriolic statements and U.S. economic vulnerability due to its dependence on foreign oil sources, Congress today sees Chávez as a nuisance and not a threat to U.S. vital interests. Devoid of an extra-hemispheric, anti-American patron intent on challenging the United States for regional leadership, Chávez is seen by Congress largely as a threat to the stability of Venezuela's institutions and political-economic stability. Today both the U.S. executive and the legislative branches largely see Bolivarianism a distraction and not an existential threat. The research is based on an examination of Bolivarian Venezuela compared to revolutionary upheaval and governance in Nicaragua over the course of the twentieth century. This project is largely descriptive, qualitative in approach, but quantitative data are used when appropriate. To analyze both the U.S. executive and legislative branches' reaction to revolutionary change, Cole Blasier's theoretical propositions as developed in the Hovering Giant: U.S. Responses to Revolutionary Change in Latin America 1910-1985 are utilized. The present study highlights the fact that Blasier's propositions remain a relevant means for analyzing U.S. foreign policymaking.

The effects of peer teaching of infant massage on general elf-efficacy and mother infant attachment among mothers in a residential rehabilitation facility for drug addiction and substance abuse

Approximately 200 million people, 5% aged 15-64 worldwide are illicit drug or substance abusers (World Drug Report, 2006). Between 2002 and 2005, an average of 8.2% of 12 year olds and older in the Miami, Fort Lauderdale metropolitan areas used illicit drugs (SAMHSA, 2007). Eight percent of pregnant women, aged 15 to 25, were more likely to have used illicit drugs during pregnancy than pregnant women aged 26 to 44. Alcohol use was 9.8% and cigarette use was 18% for pregnant women aged 15 to 44 (SAMHSA, 2005). Approximately a quarter of annual birth defects are attributed to the exposure of drugs or substance abuse in utero (General Accounting Office, 1991). Physical, psychological and emotional challenges may be present for the illicit drug/substance abuse (ID/SA) mother and infant placing them at a disadvantage early in their relationship (Shonkoff & Marshall, 1990). Mothers with low self efficacy have insecurely attached infants (Donovan, Leavitt, & Walsh, 1987). As the ID/SA mother struggles with wanting to be a good parent, education is needed to help her care for her infant. In this experimental study residential rehabilitating ID/SA mothers peer taught infant massage. Massage builds bonding/attachment between mother and infant (Reese & Storm, 2008) and peer teaching is effective because participants have faced similar challenges and speak the same language (Boud, Cohen, & Sampson 2001). Quantitative data were collected using the General Self-Efficacy and Maternal Attachment Inventory-Revised Scale before and after the 4-week intervention program. A reported result of this study was that empowering ID/SA mothers increased their self-efficacy, which in turn allowed the mothers to tackle challenges encountered and created feelings of being a fit mother to their infants. This research contributes to the existing database promoting evidence-based practice in drug rehabilitation centers. Healthcare personnel, such as nurse educators and maternal-child health practitioners, can develop programs in drug rehabilitation centers that cultivate an environment where the ID/SA rehabilitating mothers can peer teach each other, while creating a support system. Using infant massage as a therapeutic tool can develop a healthy infant and nurture a more positive relationship between mother and infant.

The effects of American Sign Language on general self-efficacy and anxiety among mothers in a residential rehabilitation facility for drug addiction and substance abuse

Globally, approximately 208 million people aged 15 and older used illicit drugs at least once in the last 12 months; 2 billion consumed alcohol and tobacco consumption affected 25% (World Drug Report, 2008). In the United States, 20.1 million (8.0%) people aged 12 and older were illicit drug users, 129 million (51.6%) abused alcohol and 70.9 million (28.4%) used tobacco (SAMHSA/OAS, 2008).Usually considered a problem specific to men (Lynch, 2002), 5.2% of pregnant women aged 15 to 44 are also illicit drug and substance abusers (SAMHSA/OAS, 2007). During pregnancy, illicit drugs and substance abuse (ID/SA) can significantly affect a woman and her infant contributing to developmental and communication delays for the infant and influencing parenting abilities (Budden, 1996; March of Dimes, 2006b; Rossetti, 2000). Feelings of guilt and shame and stressful experiences influence approaches to parenting (Ashley, Marsden, & Brady, 2003; Brazelton, & Greenspan, 2000; Ehrmin, 2000; Johnson, & Rosen, 1990; Kelley, 1998; Rossetti, 2000; Velez et al., 2004; Zickler, 1999). Parenthood is an expanded role that can be a trying time for those lacking a sense of self-efficacy and creates a high vulnerability to stress (Bandura, 1994). Residential treatment programs for ID/SA mothers and their children provide an excellent opportunity for effective interventions (Finkelstein, 1994; Social Care Institute for Excellence, 2005). This experimental study evaluated whether teaching American Sign Language (ASL) to mothers living with their infants/children at an ID/SA residential treatment program increased the mothers’ self-efficacy and decreased their anxiety. Quantitative data were collected using the General Self-Efficacy Scale and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory showing there was both a significant increase in self efficacy and decrease in anxiety for the mothers. This research adds to the knowledge base concerning ID/SA mothers’ caring for their infants/children. By providing a simple low cost program, easily incorporated into existing rehabilitation curricula, the study helps educators and healthcare providers better understand the needs of the ID/SA mothers. This study supports Bandura’s theory that parents who are secure in their efficacy can navigate through the various phases of their child’s development and are less vulnerable to stress (Bandura, 1994).

The relationship between spirituality, knowledge and tuberculosis (TB) medication adherence among African Americans and Haitians

Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease and nonadherence to medication can lead to new cases, multi-drug resistant TB, or potential death. Additionally, healthcare professionals and individuals with TB’s knowledge of the disease and medication adherence are crucial for successful completion of medication therapy. Patient education is one of the most important aspects of care provided in healthcare settings (CDC, 1994). TB tends to disproportionately affect minority and economically disadvantaged patient populations. The purpose of this mixed method study was to explore the relationship between spirituality, knowledge, and TB medication adherence among African Americans and Haitians. The primary research question was: What is the relationship between spirituality, knowledge and TB medication adherence among African Americans and Haitians? Quantitative data were gathered from 33 questionnaires and analyzed by two ANOVAs and four chi square analyses. The null hypothesis was not rejected; there was not a statistically significant relationship between spirituality and TB medication adherence (p =.208) among the study’s African Americans and Haitians. Qualitative data concerning participants’ knowledge of TB, gathered from 16 individual interviews further informed this analysis. Secondary research questions examined the role of spirituality, knowledge of TB and medication adherence among African Americans and Haitians. Four common themes emerged across both groups to answer the secondary research questions. Interviews revealed the themes: (a) God is in control, (b) stigmatization of TB, (c) lack of knowledge, and (d) fear of death. The theme lack of knowledge about TB was found to contribute to stigmatization of TB patients. However, in this study stigma and lack of knowledge were related to initial denial of symptoms and delayed diagnosis, but not found to be related to TB medication adherence. This study could help adult educators and health educators enhance their educational interventions, develop a better understanding of adult learning, resulting in early diagnosis and treatment ultimately decreasing transmission of TB, drug resistance, and potential death. Educators should be aware that TB patients’ spirituality may be an important part of how they cope with having TB. A larger scale study, conducted at multiple locations should be conducted to extend the findings of this small scale exploratory study. Further studies should be done to better determine what patient, healthcare provider and health care system factors might mediate relationships that may exist between lack of knowledge of TB, stigma and TB medication adherence.

Assessing the effectiveness of the internationalization process in Higher Education Institutions: A case study of Florida International University

The purpose of this study was to examine a Higher Education Institution’s (HEI) process of internationalization. The theoretical model developed by Van Dijk and Miejer (1997) was used to review Florida International University (FIU)’s policy, support, and implementation dimensions and determine its position on the Internationalization Cube, and assess how FIU’s international activities fit into its different organizational processes. In addition, the study sought to shed light on student and faculty attitudes toward internationalization. Qualitative and quantitative data were collected from examining organizational documents, interviews, descriptive data on FIU’s international activities using the International Dimension Index, and the Student and Faculty Survey on Internationalization. FIU’s international activities results were analyzed in relation to a panel of experts’ item relevancy index. The Likert-type survey scales’ frequencies and percentages were calculated as well as Spearman Rho correlations between the survey’s three scales and demographic and experiences variables. The study found that FIU is located on position six of a possible eight positions on the Van Dijk and Meijer Internationalization Cube with the following characteristics: Priority Policy, One-Sided Support, and Structured Implementation toward internationalization. The analysis of FIU’s results on international activities showed that FIU exhibits all the activities considered to be strong indicators of internationalization but for position seven placement special attention is needed in the areas of foreign language study, international students, study abroad, faculty movement and involvement in international projects. The survey indicated students and faculty rated the Benefits of Internationalization highly but didn’t perceive strong institutional Support for Internationalization. Faculty age and offshore programs participation; student gender, race/ethnicity and class status; and for both, study abroad and knowledge of students travel grant had significant positive correlations with student and faculty attitudes. The study concluded that an association exists between FIU’s position on the Internationalization Cube and its international activities. Recommendations for policy, implementation, and future studies were made. It was concluded that advancing FIU’s position on the Cube will require adjustments in FIU’s policy, support and implementation dimensions. Differences in student and faculty views toward internationalization should be taken into account when planning internationalization efforts.

The use of curriculum modifications and instructional accommodations to provide access for middle school students with autism to the general curriculum

The number of students identified as having autism increased by 500% in the past 10 years (United States Government Accountability Office, 2005). All students with disabilities are required to be placed in least restrictive environments and to be given access to the general curriculum in the major subjects of math, reading, writing, and science as mandated by federal legislation such as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 2004) and No Child Left Behind (NCLB, 2001). As a result of this legislation, an increasing number of students with autism are being educated in inclusive classrooms. Most studies on general education access and curriculum modifications and/or instructional accommodations center on students with intellectual disabilities (e.g. Soukup, Wehmeyer, Bashinski, & Boviard, 2007; Wehmeyer, Lattin, Lapp-Rincker, & Agran, 2003). Wehmeyer et al. (2003) and Soukup et al. (2007) found included students with intellectual disabilities had more access to the general curriculum than mostly self-contained students. This meant included students were more likely to be working on the general curriculum as mandated by NCLB than those in only self-contained classrooms. This study builds and expands the research of Wehmeyer et al., as well as Soukup et al., by examining how students with autism are given access to the general curriculum through curriculum modifications and instructional accommodations used by general education teachers in three schools. This investigation focused on nine inclusive classrooms for students with autism using a parallel mixed methods design (Newman, Newman, & Newman, 2011). Classroom observations using both an IEP related checklist and field notes, teacher interviews, an archival document review of the Individual Education Plan (IEP) for the selected students with autism were performed. Findings of this study were organized by interview questions and subsequent coding categories. Quantitative data were organized in a nominal scale. Participants asserted that their middle school students with autism functioned well in their classrooms, occasionally exhibiting behavioral differences. Most instructional accommodations on IEPs were being implemented by participants, and participants often provided additional instructional accommodations not mandated by the IEP. The majority of participants credited county workshops for their knowledge of instructional accommodations.

An integrated multi-agent framework for optimizing time, cost and environmental impact of construction processes

Environmentally conscious construction has received a significant amount of research attention during the last decades. Even though construction literature is rich in studies that emphasize the importance of environmental impact during the construction phase, most of the previous studies failed to combine environmental analysis with other project performance criteria in construction. This is mainly because most of the studies have overlooked the multi-objective nature of construction projects. In order to achieve environmentally conscious construction, multi-objectives and their relationships need to be successfully analyzed in the complex construction environment. The complex construction system is composed of changing project conditions that have an impact on the relationship between time, cost and environmental impact (TCEI) of construction operations. Yet, this impact is still unknown by construction professionals. Studying this impact is vital to fulfill multiple project objectives and achieve environmentally conscious construction. This research proposes an analytical framework to analyze the impact of changing project conditions on the relationship of TCEI. This study includes green house gas (GHG) emissions as an environmental impact category. The methodology utilizes multi-agent systems, multi-objective optimization, analytical network process, and system dynamics tools to study the relationships of TCEI and support decision-making under the influence of project conditions. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is applied to the evaluation of environmental impact in terms of GHG. The mixed method approach allowed for the collection and analysis of qualitative and quantitative data. Structured interviews of professionals in the highway construction field were conducted to gain their perspectives in decision-making under the influence of certain project conditions, while the quantitative data were collected from the Florida Department of Transportation (FDOT) for highway resurfacing projects. The data collected were used to test the framework. The framework yielded statistically significant results in simulating project conditions and optimizing TCEI. The results showed that the change in project conditions had a significant impact on the TCEI optimal solutions. The correlation between TCEI suggested that they affected each other positively, but in different strengths. The findings of the study will assist contractors to visualize the impact of their decision on the relationship of TCEI.

The early development and pilot -testing of a case management intervention with victims of stalking: An evaluation study

This study evaluated the early development and pilot-testing of Project IMPACT, a case management intervention for victims of stalking. The Design and Development framework (Rothman & Thomas, 1994) was used as a guide for program development and evaluation. Nine research questions examined the processes and outcomes associated with program implementation. ^ The sample included all 36 clients who participated in Project IMPACT between February of 2000 and June of 2001, as well as the victim advocates who provided them with services. Quantitative and qualitative data were drawn from client case files, participant observation field notes and interview transcriptions. Quantitative data were entered into three databases where: (1) clients were the units of analysis (n = 36), (2) services were the units of analysis (n = 1146), and (3) goals were the units of analysis (n = 149). These data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Pearson's Chi-square, Spearman's Rho, Phi, Cramer's V, Wilcoxon's Matched Pairs Signed-Ranked Test and McNemar's Test Statistic. Qualitative data were reduced via open, axial and selective coding methods. Grounded theory and case study frameworks were utilized to analyze these data. ^ Results showed that most clients noted an improved sense of well-being and safety, although residual symptoms of trauma remained for numerous individuals. Stalkers appeared to respond to criminal and civil justice-based interventions by reducing violent and threatening behaviors; however, covert behaviors continued. The study produced findings that provided preliminary support for the use of several intervention components including support services, psycho-education, safety planning, and boundary spanning. The psycho-education and safety planning in particular seemed to help clients cognitively reframe their perceptions of the stalking experience and gain a sense of increased safety and well-being. A 65% level of satisfactory goal achievement was observed overall, although goals involving justice-based organizations were associated with lower achievement. High service usage was related to low-income clients and those lacking in social support. Numerous inconsistencies in program implementation were found to be associated with the skills and experiences of victim advocates. Thus, recommendations were made to further refine, develop and evaluate the intervention. ^

A comparison of the teacher efficacy and performance of traditionally and alternatively certified first -year teachers

The purpose of this study was to compare the efficacy and performance evaluations of alternatively certified first-year teachers to traditionally certified first-year teachers. The participants were 25 first-year teachers in the Broward County Public School District (FL) who completed the Transition to Teaching alternative certification program and a comparison group of 32 first-year teachers in the same school district who completed a traditional university teacher preparation program. ^ The study was a mixed methods design (Creswell, 2003; Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998). The quantitative data were collected during the 2002–2003 school year using the Teachers' Sense of Efficacy Scale (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001) and the Florida Performance Measurement System formative and summative instruments. The qualitative data consisted of focus group interviews that were conducted at the end of the 2002–2003 school year. ^ Data were analyzed using independent samples t tests to compare the means of the two populations on their efficacy scores and performance evaluations. Paired samples t tests and analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) were used to compare the efficacy scores for each certification type at the beginning of the school year to the efficacy scores at the end of the school year. A repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare the change in the efficacy scores of the teachers from the beginning of the school year to the end of the school year. Focus group interviews were conducted and transcribed, and the content was analyzed and categorized based on the four sources of self-efficacy described by Bandura (1986, 1997). ^ The results of this study revealed that no statistically significant differences existed between the two groups of teachers in their teacher efficacy or performance evaluations and that they reported similar sources of their efficacy. These findings add to the research base that supports alternative certification as a viable and effective pathway into teaching. ^

A determination of the effects of a ropes course on the self -esteem of undergraduate and graduate students

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of the ropes course on the self-esteem of undergraduate and graduate students. The ropes course provides challenging experiential activities that facilitate personal confidence and group teamwork. The study relates to adult education, experiential education, and program evaluation within the context of hospitality and tourism management education. Quantitative data were based on the assessment of self-esteem through the completion of the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (SEI-C) modified for this study. Qualitative data were based on assessment of participants' reflective papers stating their perceptions of the ropes course. ^ The study compared a treatment group (31 undergraduate and 25 graduate students) which participated in the ropes course, and a control group (31 undergraduate and 25 graduate students) which did not participate. Both groups completed the pre- and post-treatment SEI-C at the same time intervals. The quantitative data were analyzed using a two-way repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA). The qualitative data, comprised of reflective papers voluntarily written by 44 (79%) of the treatment group, were coded using four major themes reflecting the students' perceptions about the ropes course. ^ Scores on the pretest and posttest of the SEI-C were not significantly different for the two groups. The qualitative data showed a favorable impact of the ropes course. The discrepancy in the outcomes based on these two measures suggests that the SEI-C self-report paper-and-pencil instrument may not be sufficiently refined to evaluate the complex issue of self-esteem. The SEI-C, if used, should be supplemented by other evaluation measures, since the two measures may be evaluating different components of self-esteem. They may be also differentially affected by bias in scoring, or by statistical characteristics of reliability and validity. ^

Identity, purpose, and well-being among emerging adult Hispanic women

Few studies apply the Eriksonian model of identity formation to cross-cultural samples (3), even though issues of ethnicity and culture may inform a Hispanic woman's self-concept (Phinney, 1996). Hispanic women may also be influenced by traditional gender role behaviors such as passivity or dependence that are outlined by marianismo (Stevens, 1973). A recent study of a multiethnic sample of emerging adult women and men found that purpose commitment mediated the effects of identity commitment on hope and life satisfaction (Burrow & Hill, 2011). The current research consists of two studies that replicate and expand upon the work of Burrow and Hill (2011). Study I replicated the work of Burrow and Hill (2011) among a sample of emerging adult Hispanic women, in order to assess the extent to which the original findings would replicate in a culturally distinct sample. Study II examined the role of marianismo, ethnic identity, and acculturation on identity commitment among emerging adult Hispanic women. Both studies utilized a sample of 532 female undergraduate psychology students, age 18 to 25, who self-identified as Hispanic and submitted data via online surveys. Both studies used self-report, quantitative data, which was analyzed using structural equation modeling. Results from Study I indicated good model fit and replicated the findings from Burrow and Hill (2011). Specifically, the direct effect of identity commitment on hope was fully contingent upon an individual's level of purpose commitment, while the effect of identity commitment on life satisfaction was not contingent upon an individual's level of purpose commitment. Results from Study II indicated that marianismo, Spanish proficiency, familiarity with Latino culture, and familiarity with American culture demonstrated statistically significant direct effects on identity commitment among emerging adult Hispanic women. Results indicated cultural convergence regarding the association of an individual's identity with well-being through a sense of purpose. Findings also revealed the role of cultural factors in the extent to which Hispanic women commit to a personal identity. Future studies should employ mixed method research designs as a means to better ascertain implications of findings. ^

The United States Congress and Venezuela's Hugo Chávez

The Soviet Union's dissolution in December 1991 marks the end of the Cold War and the elimination of the United States' main rival for global political-economic leadership. For decades U.S. foreign policymakers had formulated policies aimed at containing the spread of Soviet communism and Moscow's interventionist policies in the Americas. They now assumed that Latin American leftist revolutionary upheavals could also be committed to history. This study explores how Congress takes an active role in U.S. foreign policymaking when dealing with revolutionary changes in Latin America. This study finds that despite Chavez's vitriolic statements and U.S. economic vulnerability due to its dependence on foreign oil sources, Congress today sees Chavez as a nuisance and not a threat to U.S. vital interests. Devoid of an extra-hemispheric, anti-American patron intent on challenging the United States for regional leadership, Chavez is seen by Congress largely as a threat to the stability of Venezuela's institutions and political-economic stability. Today both the U.S. executive and the legislative branches largely see Bolivarianism a distraction and not an existential threat. The research is based on an examination of Bolivarian Venezuela compared to revolutionary upheaval and governance in Nicaragua over the course of the twentieth century. This project is largely descriptive, qualitative in approach, but quantitative data are used when appropriate. To analyze both the U.S. executive and legislative branches' reaction to revolutionary change, Cole Blasier's theoretical propositions as developed in the Hovering Giant: U.S. Responses to Revolutionary Change in Latin America 1910- 1985 are utilized. The present study highlights the fact that Blasier's propositions remain a relevant means for analyzing U.S. foreign policymaking.

The Effects of American Sign Language on General Self- Efficacy and Anxiety Among Mothers in a Residential Rehabilitation Facility for Drug Addiction and Substance Abuse

Globally, approximately 208 million people aged 15 and older used illicit drugs at least once in the last 12 months; 2 billion consumed alcohol and tobacco consumption affected 25% (World Drug Report, 2008). In the United States, 20.1 million (8.0%) people aged 12 and older were illicit drug users, 129 million (51.6%) abused alcohol and 70.9 million (28.4%) used tobacco (SAMHSA/OAS, 2008).Usually considered a problem specific to men (Lynch, 2002), 5.2% of pregnant women aged 15 to 44 are also illicit drug and substance abusers (SAMHSA/OAS, 2007). During pregnancy, illicit drugs and substance abuse (ID/SA) can significantly affect a woman and her infant contributing to developmental and communication delays for the infant and influencing parenting abilities (Budden, 1996; March of Dimes, 2006b; Rossetti, 2000). Feelings of guilt and shame and stressful experiences influence approaches to parenting (Ashley, Marsden, & Brady, 2003; Brazelton, & Greenspan, 2000; Ehrmin, 2000; Johnson, & Rosen, 1990; Kelley, 1998; Rossetti, 2000; Velez et al., 2004; Zickler, 1999). Parenthood is an expanded role that can be a trying time for those lacking a sense of self-efficacy and creates a high vulnerability to stress (Bandura, 1994). Residential treatment programs for ID/SA mothers and their children provide an excellent opportunity for effective interventions (Finkelstein, 1994; Social Care Institute for Excellence, 2005). This experimental study evaluated whether teaching American Sign Language (ASL) to mothers living with their infants/children at an ID/SA residential treatment program increased the mothers’ self-efficacy and decreased their anxiety. Quantitative data were collected using the General Self-Efficacy Scale and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory showing there was both a significant increase in self efficacy and decrease in anxiety for the mothers. This research adds to the knowledge base concerning ID/SA mothers’ caring for their infants/children. By providing a simple low cost program, easily incorporated into existing rehabilitation curricula, the study helps educators and healthcare providers better understand the needs of the ID/SA mothers. This study supports Bandura’s theory that parents who are secure in their efficacy can navigate through the various phases of their child’s development and are less vulnerable to stress (Bandura, 1994).

The Effects of Peer Teaching of Infant Massage on General Self-Efficacy and Mother Infant Attachment Among Mothers in a Residential Rehabilitation Facility for Drug Addiction and Substance Abuse

Approximately 200 million people, 5% aged 15-64 worldwide are illicit drug or substance abusers (World Drug Report, 2006). Between 2002 and 2005, an average of 8.2% of 12 year olds and older in the Miami, Fort Lauderdale metropolitan areas used illicit drugs (SAMHSA, 2007). Eight percent of pregnant women, aged 15 to 25, were more likely to have used illicit drugs during pregnancy than pregnant women aged 26 to 44. Alcohol use was 9.8% and cigarette use was 18% for pregnant women aged 15 to 44 (SAMHSA, 2005). Approximately a quarter of annual birth defects are attributed to the exposure of drugs or substance abuse in utero (General Accounting Office, 1991). Physical, psychological and emotional challenges may be present for the illicit drug/substance abuse (ID/SA) mother and infant placing them at a disadvantage early in their relationship (Shonkoff & Marshall, 1990). Mothers with low self efficacy have insecurely attached infants (Donovan, Leavitt, & Walsh, 1987). As the ID/SA mother struggles with wanting to be a good parent, education is needed to help her care for her infant. In this experimental study residential rehabilitating ID/SA mothers peer taught infant massage. Massage builds bonding/attachment between mother and infant (Reese & Storm, 2008) and peer teaching is effective because participants have faced similar challenges and speak the same language (Boud, Cohen, & Sampson 2001). Quantitative data were collected using the General Self-Efficacy and Maternal Attachment Inventory-Revised Scale before and after the 4-week intervention program. A reported result of this study was that empowering ID/SA mothers increased their self-efficacy, which in turn allowed the mothers to tackle challenges encountered and created feelings of being a fit mother to their infants. This research contributes to the existing database promoting evidence-based practice in drug rehabilitation centers. Healthcare personnel, such as nurse educators and maternal-child health practitioners, can develop programs in drug rehabilitation centers that cultivate an environment where the ID/SA rehabilitating mothers can peer teach each other, while creating a support system. Using infant massage as a therapeutic tool can develop a healthy infant and nurture a more positive relationship between mother and infant.