Haus des Rundfunks en Berlin, de Hans Poelzig, 1930

Poelzig affirmed that the technical ideal consisted of using the least amount of shapes and materials possible. He understood architecture as an art, as the expression of form; In contrast to the indifference of the most widely recognized values of modernism: technical innovation in construction along with the functionality of buildings. The Haus des Rundfunks is a powerful hermetic factory in the shape of a triangle and of uniform height. Mass, geometric rigidity and the absence of textures make up a building which relinquishes expressing the new media, with a perimeter ring consisting of offices and larger spaces that are more characteristic towards their inside. Geometry is used as a means to organize and limit the shapes of the buildings. The arrangement and division of different intercommunicating spaces are subjected to the crudeness of their geometric limits. Interior spaces ranging from the most static to the most dynamic are defined through the qualities of materials and geometries. This turns the spaces into geometric grids which decompose the wall, floor and ceiling planes into fragments, regardless of the constructive reality provided by a metallic frame structure. Its polyhedral lamps enclose artificial and emphasize the value of the grid. Poelzig limits himself to dealing with planes within a closed volume of uniform height, and maintains geometric rigidity compatible with a certain degree of figurativeness. This article tries to bring to life this exemplary building, marked by its passivity and hermetism.

Materialidad poética: arquitectura suiza en el entorno de los Grisones 1992-2004

El entorno alpino de los Grisones ha sido un laboratorio donde experimentar un método arquitectónico procedente de diversas fuentes durante los años 70 en la ETHZ. Este método ha producido durante las últimas tres décadas un discurso teórico propiamente suizo alemán. La tradición continúa siendo un valor cultural para la comunidad alpina de los Grisones, que apuesta por seguir relacionando la arquitectura con su historia y su paisaje. La especificidad de cada entorno suizo alemán es un hecho obvio pero, por encima de sus rasgos característicos, hay un denominador común que les da unidad en silencio: se trata de una idea de la construcción. El fenómeno de los Grisones es territorial en su localización concreta, pero comparte el trasfondo teórico del resto de la arquitectura suizo alemana reciente. La tesis recorre transversalmente las condiciones que han dado lugar a esa trayectoria común hasta la actualidad, en que la arquitectura suizo alemana se halla precisamente en un momento de cambio generacional. La obra de Peter Märkli constituye en esta tesis un paradigma de la voluntad suizo alemana por formar parte de la continuidad cultural de la arquitectura, como una actitud de resistencia compartida frente al mundo globalizado. La tesis se articula a partir de ocho proyectos recientes, realizados por arquitectos suizo alemanes en el entorno del territorio alpino de los Grisones. Estos proyectos condensan la trayectoria arquitectónica suizo alemana durante el siglo XX, así como el fenómeno arquitectónico que ha tenido lugar en el entorno de los Grisones durante las últimas tres décadas. La tesis analiza a través de cada pareja de proyectos los episodios teóricos, artísticos y filosóficos más relevantes que se sintetizan en estas obras, así como sus referentes arquitectónicos y la dimensión trascendente de los materiales en los que la cultura suiza hunde sus raíces: la madera, la piedra y el hormigón. Las vanguardias pictóricas, el Movimiento Moderno y las corrientes humanistas y regionalistas que se fueron sucediendo durante el pasado siglo, configuran el escenario en el que tomó cuerpo la sensibilidad arquitectónica suizo alemana reciente, que emerge a través de la compleja red de relaciones establecidas entre el panorama suizo y el internacional. El mismo bagaje teórico subyace al territorio suizo alemán a nivel general, por lo que asociarlo a través de esta tesis a proyectos realizados en un entorno característico, permite acceder a una realización concreta de ese debate en un entorno tan particular como son los Grisones. La aproximación a los proyectos es de carácter fenomenológico: la experiencia directa de los mismos ha sido el sustrato fundamental del enfoque de la tesis. El trabajo de campo no se limitó a visitar los proyectos que vertebran la tesis, sino que trató de abarcar las obras más relevantes de la producción suizo alemana reciente en los Grisones, con el fin de adquirir cierto grado de sensibilidad perceptiva hacia la singularidad de su identidad territorial. La tesis hace especial hincapié en las obras de Peter Märkli y Peter Zumthor, representantes de los dos extremos del discurso suizo alemán reciente, respecto a la materialidad y al carácter de la secuencia espacial, sistemático o fluido respectivamente, pero que asimismo comparten el clasicismo formalista que subyace al fenómeno suizo alemán. Los dos proyectos que establecen el periodo 1992-2004 explorado por esta investigación constituyen dos hitos fundamentales. El Museo de La Congiunta en Giornico de Peter Märkli se construyó en 1992 y se erige a partir de entonces como un icono arquitectónico de la condensación típicamente suizo alemana de base reductiva. Este paradigma de síntesis conceptual y constructiva comenzó a forjarse en la década de 1930 de la mano del Konkrete Kunst formulado por Max Bill, que es la única manifestación artística genuinamente suiza del siglo XX y que desarrolló pictóricamente los valores de precisión, rigor, racionalismo y abstracción afines a la sensibilidad suizo alemana. En segundo lugar, el proyecto para la rehabilitación de la Villa Garbald y la construcción de la Torre Roccolo en Castasegna llevado a cabo por Miller & Maranta en 2004, supuso la consumación de la Analoge Architektur, que fue la primera corriente arquitectónica propiamente suiza, desarrollada durante la década de 1980 por Miroslav Sik. La Deutscher Tendenza es un periodo de la trayectoria suizo alemana reciente poco conocido, representado por una figura tan relevante como es Peter Zumthor. Las obras que proyectó Zumthor entre 1979 y 1985 forman parte de un periodo en que el arquitecto se encontraba profundamente influido por el neorracionalismo italiano, como ilustra la escuela de Churwalden de 1983. La arquitectura suizo alemana reciente exploró sistemáticamente los sistemas compositivos de las vanguardias pictóricas y del Movimiento Moderno, por encima de su formalismo concreto. La segunda fase de la obra de Zumthor entre 1985 y 1996 se caracteriza por la transfiguración del plano libre del sistema compositivo neoplasticista desarrollado por De Stijl, plano que adquirió grosor hasta convertirse en la caja articuladora de la fluidez de la secuencia espacial. El formalismo de Zumthor en esta fase implica la prioridad del esquema compositivo, compuesto por un perímetro regular en el que se reúnen las cajas que, como las superficies de color de las composiciones de Mondrian, articulan el espacio a su alrededor. La Residencia de Masans de Zumthor de 1993 es un proyecto canónico de este sistema compositivo, que culmina en el esquema radial de las Termas de Vals de 1996. La imagen poética se convirtió en el lenguaje propio del pensamiento de la arquitectura suizo alemana, que permitía una reflexión no verbal, a partir de unos pocos arquetipos fundamentales. Los arquitectos del Ticino buscaron en la Tendenza italiana durante la década de 1970 una alternativa al insostenible modelo territorial que estaba destruyendo su paisaje cultural. Algunos de estos arquitectos comenzaron a dar clase durante esa década en la ETHZ, por lo que transmitieron sus inquietudes al alumnado e introdujeron a Aldo Rossi en la facultad, que era uno de los máximos representantes de la Tendenza. El método analógico de Rossi, basado en la psicología analítica de Carl Jung, fue una influencia fundamental en la ETHZ durante los años 70. Rossi partía de una teoría afín al colectivo intelectual suizo que los arquitectos de la ETHZ pronto comprendieron que debían independizar del contexto italiano, desarrollando su propio método a partir de 1985 con la Analoge Architektur. El valor de la preexistencia de acuerdo a este método incipiente se hallaba en su papel articulador de la continuidad cultural de una comunidad, que Miroslav Sik definió a partir de su concepto de Altneue (literalmente, lo Nuevo-Viejo). La fusión entre lo nuevo y lo viejo era la base de la espontaneidad con la que habían crecido los asentamientos históricamente. Sik consideraba que la continuidad dependía de la comprensión de los patrones preexistentes, con el objeto de mantener su vigencia mediante la incorporación de estrategias contemporáneas, que renovarían su significado sin perder su esencia. La Casa Gugalun en Versam de Zumthor de 1994 supone una aproximación a escala doméstica a este planteamiento. La arquitectura suizo alemana reciente a menudo busca en sus referentes plásticos una manera de explorar ámbitos poco accesibles para la disciplina arquitectónica. El pensamiento arquitectónico basado en la imagen poética se implementa a partir de la tectónica de la construcción, que es el medio para comunicar una idea vertebradora del proyecto de principio a fin. La construcción como medio introduce el concepto clave de la apariencia de la arquitectura, estrechamente relacionado con la filosofía idealista de Friedrich Schiller. La apariencia debe expresar el sentido conceptual de la obra, que los arquitectos suizo alemanes denominan idea, por lo que la construcción no tiene un valor por sí misma, sino en cuanto a la apariencia. La Capilla de Oberrealta de Christian Kerez de 1993 puede ser considerada una obra escultórica en el paisaje, más próxima a las artes plásticas que a la arquitectura. La tensión que surge entre la figura ideal y la pieza sometida a una sutil deformación confiere un carácter dinámico a la composición, que intensifica el efecto perceptivo, de acuerdo a la teoría del pensamiento visual de Rudolph Arnheim. La deformación al servicio de la psicología de la percepción es un fenómeno que caracteriza la arquitectura suizo alemana reciente. El concepto de Forme Forte (forma fuerte) fue introducido por Martin Steinmann para caracterizar el objeto arquitectónico denominado internacionalmente Swiss Box. Este concepto se caracteriza por una predilección por lo monolítico, lo unitario y lo arquetípico. La condición más sustancial de una Forme Forte es, sin embargo, la de configurar un elemento estructurador del entorno. Tanto la base morfológica de una Forme Forte, como su capacidad para estructurar el lugar, se corresponden con los conceptos de arquetipo y monumento de la teoría de Rossi. La tesis explora el sentido de la deformación en la producción suizo alemana reciente, a partir de la Escuela de Paspels de Valerio Olgiati de 1998 y la Torre Roccolo de Villa Garbald de Miller&Maranta de 1998. La teoría tectónica de Gottfried Semper y la razón de la forma de Adolf Loos constituyen el sustrato teórico, que relaciona la actividad existencial de habitar con la materialidad de la arquitectura suizo alemana reciente. La teoría tectónica de Semper fundamenta las revisiones posteriores de los sistemas constructivos tradicionales suizo alemanes. Esta influencia sirvió como base a la vanguardia suiza de la Neues Bauen, que desarrolló un racionalismo funcionalista durante las décadas de 1920 y 1930, que constituye una gramática de base no simbólica. Esta gramática constituye el fundamento de la transición del orden clásico a la materialidad como instrumento compositivo durante la segunda mitad del siglo XX, consolidando el concepto de la base material de la forma. La revisión de la tradición regionalista y racionalista llevada a cabo por la generación de arquitectos suizo alemanes de la década de 1950 y 1960, constituyó una investigación lingüística sustancial. Rudolph Olgiati es la figura determinante de este periodo. La revisión de esta investigación se codificó en clave estructuralista durante los años 70 en la ETHZ, influenciada por la presencia de Roland Barthes como profesor invitado. Esta revisión constituyó la base de la articulación tectónica propiamente suizo alemana todavía vigente, como ilustra expresamente la obra de Burkhalter&Sumi en esta tesis. La obra de Gion Caminada en Vrin entre 1995 y 2002 aporta una intensa investigación sobre el Strickbau, que implementa una y otra vez variaciones sobre un sistema tradicional, ilustrando las infinitas posibilidades que ofrece un lenguaje, paradójicamente limitado por los medios disponibles en un entorno alpino aislado. Para terminar Jürg Conzett es el ingeniero con el que han desarrollado sus proyectos la mayoría de los arquitectos en el entorno de los Grisones, formado durante 8 años con Zumthor y colaborador habitual de Caminada entre otros. Conzett es el referente que relaciona la ingeniería con la arquitectura en el ámbito de esta tesis, imprescindible en el contexto de esta investigación. ABSTRACT The Alpine setting of Grisons has been a laboratory for architectural experimentation with an approach forged in the 1970s from various sources in the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich (ETHZ). This method has produced a uniquely German-Swiss theoretical discourse over the past three decades. Tradition continues to be a cultural value for Grisons, a region committed to continue linking its architecture with the region’s history and landscape. The specificity of the German-Swiss environment is obvious, but beyond its characteristic features, there is a common denominator that gives these settings a silent unity: it is an idea of building. The phenomenon of Grisons is geographic in its specific location, but it shares the theoretical basis of the rest of the new German-Swiss architecture. This thesis transversely delves into the conditions that have shaped this common path up to the present, just as German-Swiss architecture is going through a time of generational change. In this thesis, Märkli Peter's work constitutes a paradigm of the German-Swiss will to uphold the cultural and architectural continuity of the region, exemplifying an attitude of shared resistance to the globalized world. The thesis is structured around eight recent projects carried out by German-Swiss architects in the Alpine region of Grisons. These projects represent the trajectory of twentieth century German-Swiss architectural history, as well as the architectural phenomenon that has taken place in the environs of Grisons over the past three decades. Through these projects the thesis analyzes the most relevant theoretical, artistic and philosophical references that are synthesized in the works, as well as their architectural references and the transcendental dimension of the materials in which Swiss culture is rooted: wood, stone and concrete. The artistic avant-garde, together with Modernism and the humanistic and regional movements that occurred during the last century, set the stage for present-day German-Swiss architectural sensitivity, which emerges from a complex web of relationships established between the Swiss and international panorama. This same theoretical background and experience underlies all of the German-Swiss territory in general, so associating it through this thesis to a particular context allows the description of a specific embodiment of this debate, within the unique environment of Grisons. The methodological approach to analyzing the projects was phenomenological: direct experience is the main substrate underpinning the focus of the thesis. Field work was not limited to visiting the projects featured in the thesis, but rather encompassed the most important works of recent German-Swiss construction in the Grisons in order to gain some degree of perceptual sensitivity to the uniqueness of its territorial identity. The present paper puts special emphasis on the works of Peter Märkli and Peter Zumthor, who share the formal classicist perspective of the German-Swiss context but stand on opposite sides of the philosophical spectrum with regard to the notion of materiality and the nature of space, which they conceive as systematic or fluid, respectively. The two projects that establish the boundaries of the time period 1992–2004 explored by this research represent two key milestones. The Museum La Congiunta in Giornico, by Peter Märkli, was built in 1992 and quickly established itself as an architectural icon of German-Swiss reductionism. This paradigm of conceptual and constructive synthesis began to take shape in the 1930s under the banner of Konkrete Kunst (Concrete Art), led by Max Bill. The only genuinely Swiss artistic movement of the twentieth century, Konkrete Kunst was characterized by the artistic values of precision, rigor, rationalism and abstraction, sentiments that were very close to the German-Swiss tradition. Secondly, the project for the rehabilitation of Villa Garbald and the construction of the Roccolo Tower in Castasegna, conducted by Miller&Maranta in 2004, represented the consummation of the Analoge Architektur, which was the first truly Swiss architectural movement, spearheaded in the 1980s by Miroslav Sik. The Deutscher Tendenza is a little-known period of recent German-Swiss history, represented by the important figure of Peter Zumthor. The projects that Zumthor led between 1979 and 1985 are part of a period when Italian Neo-Rationalism exercised a profound influence on the architect, as illustrated by the Churwalden School, circa 1983. Recent German-Swiss architecture systematically explored the compositional systems of the artistic avant-garde and Modernism, beyond its specific formal aspects. The second phase of Zumthor's work, between 1985 and 1996, is characterized by the transfiguration of the free plane, neoplastic compositional system developed by De Stijl, a plane that thickened until it became the box articulating fluidity from the spatial sequence. Zumthor's formalism in this phase prioritizes the compositional scheme, consisting of a regular perimeter in which the boxes that -like Mondrian’s colored surfaces- arrange the space around it. Zumthor’s Masans Residence, circa 1993, is a canonical project of this compositional system, which culminates in the radial pattern of the Therme Vals, circa 1996. The poetic image became the appropriate language of thought for German-Swiss architecture, which invited a nonverbal reflection inspired by a few fundamental archetypes. The architects of Ticino sought, through the Italian Tendenza of the 1970s, an alternative to the unsustainable territorial model that was destroying their cultural landscape. Some of these architects began to teach during that decade at ETHZ, and naturally they transmitted their unease to their students. These architects also introduced Aldo Rossi, one of the leading representatives of the Tendenza, to the school. Rossi’s analogue method, based on the analytical psychology of Carl Jung, was a major influence on the ETHZ during the 1970s. Rossi’s theoretical grounding was very much in tune with Swiss intellectualism, and it did not take long for architects from ETHZ to realize that they should break away from the Italian context, developing their own method from 1985 on with the Analoge Architektur. The value of the pre-existing conformity of this emerging method, stemmed from its role in facilitating the cultural continuity of a community, which Miroslav Sik defined in his concept of Altneue (literally, Old-new). This fusion of old and new was the basis for the spontaneity with which settlements had historically grown. Sik considered that continuity depended on understanding the existing patterns and sustaining their relevance through the incorporation of contemporary strategies, which would renew their meaning without losing their essence. Zumthor’s Gugalun House in Versam, circa 1994, is a domestic-scale approach to this philosophy. Modern German-Swiss architecture often looks to its references in visual art for a way to explore areas that are normally inaccessible to the architectural discipline. Architectural thinking based on the poetic image is achieved through a building’s tectonics, which communicate the core idea of a project from start to finish. The understanding of construction as a medium introduces the key concept of the appearance in architecture, closely related to the idealistic philosophy of Friedrich Schiller. The appearance should express the conceptual meaning of the work, which German-Swiss architects call the idea, so that the building does not have value in and of itself, but only in terms of its appearance. The Oberrealta Chapel by Christian Kerez, circa 1993, can be considered a sculpture in the landscape, closer to the visual arts than to architecture. The tension that arises between the ideal figure and the piece subjected to a subtle deformation confers a dynamic character onto the composition, intensifying the perceptual effect, according to Rudolf Arnheim’s theory of visual thought. The deformation in the service of the psychology of perception is a phenomenon that characterizes recent German-Swiss architecture. Martin Steinmann introduced the Forme Forte (Strong Form) concept to describe the architectural object known internationally as the Swiss Box. This concept is characterized by a predilection for all things monolithic, unitary and archetypal. The most substantial condition of a Forme Forte, however, is the configuration of a structuring element in the environment. Both the morphological basis of a Forme Forte and its ability to frame the place, correspond to the concepts of archetype and monument put forward by Rossi’s theory. The present thesis explores the sense of deformation in recent German-Swiss production, based on the School of Paspels by Valerio Olgiati, circa 1998 and the Roccolo Tower in Villa Garbald, by Miller&Maranta, circa 1998. Gottfried Semper’s tectonic theory and Adolf Loos’s reason for form constitute the theoretical foundation that links the existential activity of dwelling to the materiality of recent German-Swiss architecture. Semper’s tectonic theory laid the foundation for subsequent revisions of the German-Swiss traditional building systems. This influence was the basis for the Swiss avant-garde of Neues Bauen, which developed a functional rationalism during the 1920s and 30s that served as a non-symbolic grammatical foundation for the transition from classical order to materiality as a compositional tool. During the second half of the twentieth century, this architectural grammar helped consolidate the concept of the material base of the form. The revision of the regionalist and rationalist tradition, carried out by the generation of German-Swiss architects of the 1950s and 60s, constituted a substantial linguistic investigation. Rudolph Olgiati is the key figure of this period. The research was codified in terms of structuralism in the 1970s in ETHZ and influenced by the presence of Roland Barthes as a visiting professor. This revision was the basis of the uniquely German-Swiss tectonic design still in use today, as specifically illustrated by the work of Burkhalter & Sumi in this thesis. Gion Caminada's work in Vrin between 1995 and 2002 offers an extensive study on the Strickbau, which implements variations on a traditional system again and again, illustrating the endless possibilities of a language that paradoxically seems limited by the available resources in a remote Alpine setting. Finally, Jürg Conzett is the engineer with whom most architects in the Grisons region have developed their projects. Trained under Zumthor for 8 years, and a regular collaborator of Caminada, among others, Conzett is the reference point linking engineering with architecture in this thesis, essential in the context of this research.

El espejismo de un problema arquitectónico: sobre la exposición «Buildings for Best Products» en el MOMA de Nueva York

El espejismo de un problema arquitectónico: sobre la exposición «Buildings for Best Products» en el MOMA de Nueva York

La arquitectura religiosa en Santiago de Chile 1850-1950: razones de las reminiscencias góticas

Históricamente la estrategia de localización de la infraestructura religiosa católica en Chile ha estado condicionada por intenciones destinadas a la captación y tutela de feligreses, proceso desarrollado a través de intervenciones que han generado externalidades difíciles de anticipar y posibles de visualizar en un marco temporal mayor. En este contexto la producción e instalación de los templos católicos en distintos lugares de la ciudad condicionaron los territorios y marcaron presencia en su afán por colonizar y mantener el dominio, mecanismo propio de la institución religiosa que se adaptó al medio y a las circunstancias político social para cumplir su misión y mantener el poder. En esta investigación se buscó identificar desde las edificaciones destinadas al culto, la relación escalar entre localización, modo de instalación y morfología que incluye la forma y técnica de construcción, reconociendo la manera cómo modifican los entornos, el efecto que provocan y las expectativas que abren a nuevas intervenciones. El escenario escogido para realizar el estudio correspondió a un período de la historia de la ciudad de Santiago de Chile no documentado en que las circunstancias políticas, económicas, sociales y culturales contribuyeron a que el modo de disposición de las edificaciones de culto condicionaron el desarrollo urbano y orientaron el crecimiento de la ciudad. El período en que se desarrolló el estudio correspondió a la época de mayor riqueza material y cultural de la historia del país y estuvo modelada por las intenciones y planes de desarrollo tendientes a consolidar lo que se ha denominado el modelo Republicano. Escenario en que el espacio público cobró interés y se transformó en el motor de los cambios e indicador de la escala de la ciudad, estableciendo las condiciones para que las distintas corrientes europeas se manifestaran en el hacer arquitectónico cambiando la imagen original de la ciudad colonial. Este proceso que ocurrió sobre la estructura existente, densificó la manzana a través de la subdivisión predial, que complementado con los avances tecnológicos permitieron mayores alturas de edificación, situación que dio origen a nuevas concepciones espaciales, posibles de desarrollar con los recursos materiales, intelectuales y técnicos disponibles. El estudio se centró en la centuria 1850-1950 analizando la forma como la infraestructura religiosa Católica se localizó en el tejido urbano adoptando distintas tipologías edilicias, en una época caracterizada por el eclecticismo arquitectónico. Específicamente se estudiaron las edificaciones que utilizaron reminiscencias góticas, identificando los casos más significativos, estableciendo el contexto en que se originaron e indagando en la significación que tuvieron por la función que cumplieron, considerando emplazamiento y conexión con el entorno construido, conformación, dimensiones, destino y patrocinios. El área de estudio se fundamentó por la concentración de construcciones con la tendencia historicista, producciones que en el corto y mediano plazo orientaron las transformaciones de la ciudad y por la presencia que conservan hasta estos días. Se observó la incidencia de la acción de la Iglesia Católica en las políticas de Estado, orientando las decisiones de planificación y ocupación del territorio, condicionando la localización de los templos a fin de conseguir las mayores coberturas de la población y el mayor rendimiento de las inversiones. En el contexto latinoamericano la construcción de iglesias, templos y catedrales con reminiscencias góticas fue una constante que caracterizó al último cuarto del siglo XIX y las tres primeras décadas del siglo XX. El estudio permitió conocer en términos cuantitativos y cualitativos la producción, destacando la morfología y materialidad caracterizada por la adopción de estrategias contemporáneas estructuralmente exigentes. Se observó la utilización de la arquitectura como un medio de acercamiento a la población, capaz de transformar a los edificios en símbolos barriales, que facilitaron la generación de identidad, al convertirse en los referentes materiales que se destacan, que se recuerdan y que asumen la representatividad de barrios, permaneciendo en el tiempo y convirtiéndose en íconos asociados a la cultura local. En síntesis, la instalación de las infraestructuras religiosas en la ciudad de Santiago fue consecuencia de un modo de producción, que entregó lugares de encuentro y símbolos para la ciudad, a través de la localización de los edificios que buscaron ocupar áreas visibles, relevantes y convocantes, lo que consiguieron mediante la instalación geográfica, central y equidistante de conglomerados residenciales consolidados o en vías de desarrollo, como también a través de edificaciones monumentales y siempre destacadas respecto de su entorno, lo que marcó exclusividad y dominio. La elección de tipos arquitectónicos fue coyuntural a los tiempos e inspirada en intelectuales y profesionales mayoritariamente foráneos que aportaron conocimientos y experiencia para auspiciar edificaciones que fueron reconocidas como señeras y precursoras de la época. La intensidad en el uso de los recursos que demandaron las exigentes estructuras obligó a la iglesia católica a establecer estrategias de financiación destinadas a suplir la falta de recursos provenientes del Estado. Para lo cual convocaron a distintos actores los que participaron desde sus fronteras y en función de sus intereses cubriendo desde el altruismo hasta la rentabilización de su patrimonio. La organización iglesia católica se comporta de la misma manera que cualquier otra organización: busca expandirse, concentrar, controlar y administrar. Busca codificar todo su entorno (Raffestin, 2011), busca trascender y materialmente lo logra desde sus construcciones. ABSTRACT Historically the location strategies of the catholic religious infrastructure in Chile has been conditioned by intentions aimed at attracting and guardianship of parishioners, process developed through interventions that have generated externalities difficult to anticipate and possible to visualize in a in a major temporary frame. In this context, the production and installation of the catholic churches in different places in the city determined the territories and marked presence in their quest to colonize and maintain domain, mechanism of the religious institution that was adapted to the environment and in the political and social circumstances to fulfill its mission and maintain power. This research sought to identify from the buildings intended for worship in a multi-scale relationship between location, the placement mode, morphology and shape and construction technique and the effect caused by them, the way how they alter the environments and the expectations that are open to new interventions. The chosen scenario for the study corresponded to a not documented period in the history of the city of Santiago de Chile in which political, economic, social and cultural circumstances contributed to the form of disposition of the buildings of worship that determined the urban development and guided the growth of the city. The study period was the epoch of largest material and cultural wealth of Chile history and it was modeled by the intentions and development plans tending to consolidate what has been named the Republican ideal. Scenario in which public space gained interest and became the engine of change and indicator of the scale of the city, establishing the conditions for the various European trends manifested themselves in transforming the original image of the colonial city. This process that took place on the existing structure, produced a higher density of the original blocks through the predial compartimentation, which supplemented with technological advances enabled greater building heights, a situation that gave rise to new spatial conceptions, possible of developing with the material resources, intellectuals and technicians available at the moment. The study focused on the century 1850-1950 by analyzing how the Catholic religious infrastructure was located in the urban fabric by adopting different typologies locality, in an epoch characterised by architectural eclecticism. Specifica lly, it is studied the buildings that used gothic reminiscences, identifying the most significant cases, establishing the context in which they originated and inquiring about the significance that they had for the role it played, considering location and connection to the built environment, shaping, dimensions, destination, and sponsorships. The study area was established by the concentration of buildings with this historicist trend, productions that in the short and medium term guided the transformation of the city and the presence that keeps up to these days. It was noted the incidence of the of the Catholic Church actions in guiding State policies, planning decisions and occupation of the territory, as well as conditioning the location of the temples in order to achieve greater coverage of the population and the greatest return on investment. In the context of Latin America the construction of churches, temples and cathedrals with reminiscences gothic was a constant that characterized the last quarter of the nineteenth century and the first three decades of the twentieth century. The study allowed to know in quantitative and qualitative terms the production of the period, highlighting the morphology and materiality characterized by contemporary and structurally challenging strategies. It was noted the use of architecture as a means of approaching to the population, able to transform buildings into neighborhood symbols, which facilitated the production of identity, to become the reference materials that stand out, that will be remembered and that assume the representativeness of neighborhoods, remaining in the time and becoming icons associated with the local culture. In synthesis, the installation of religious infrastructure in the city of Santiago was result of a mode of production, that provided meeting places and symbols for the city, through the location of buildings that sought to occupy visible, relevant and summoning areas, what they obtained by means of the geographical, central and equidistant installation of consolidated residential conglomerates cluster or about to development, as also through always outstanding and monumental buildings with respect to its surroundings, which marked uniqueness and domain. The choice of architectural types was related to the time and inspired by intellectuals and professionals mostly outsiders who contributed with expertise and experience to sponsor buildings were recognized as outstanding and precursor of the time. The intensity of use of the resources that requested the demanding structures forced to the Catholic church to establish funding strategies designed to compensate for the lack of funds from the State. For which convened to different actors who participated from their borders and depending on their interests covering from the altruism up to the rentabilización of its patrimony. The Catholic Church organization behaves the same way as any other organization: seeks to expand, focus, control and manage. Looking for coding the entire environment (Raffestin, 2011), seeks to transcend and succeeds materially from its building.

Vivienda y fondo edificatorio: análisis de las consecuencias del parámetro fondo en el edificio de vivienda colectiva

Este estudio ofrece una herramienta de aproximación al espacio morfológico-métrico en el que se formula la ciudad de alta densidad desde la vivienda colectiva. La vivienda colectiva es la célula básica de la ciudad. El estudio configurativo y dimensional del tejido urbano muestra la importancia del fondo edificatorio como parámetro clave a mitad de camino entre la vivienda y la ciudad. El fondo edificatorio traza el margen de la arquitectura en la ciudad y desde él se equipa y cuantifica el territorio urbano. Sus dinámicas van caracterizando los distintos entornos, mientras en su interior se formula el tipo en un ajuste de continua verificación y adaptación. La forma de la ciudad y sus distintas posibilidades configurativas —en cuanto masa construida y espacio público, pero sin perder de vista la relación entre ambos— depende en gran medida del fondo edificatorio. Se trata, por tanto, de un parámetro importante de relación entre las distintas configuraciones del espacio exterior e interior. Al proyectar, una vez establecido un fondo, algunas propiedades se adaptan con facilidad mientras que otras requieren un cierto grado de interpretación o deben ser descartadas. Dada una superficie, la especificación del fondo fuerza la dimensión del frente en las configuraciones posibles. Ambas dimensiones son vitales en el valor del factor de forma del continuo edificado y en su relación se produce el complejo rango de posibilidades. Partiendo de la ciudad, un gran fondo encierra y mezcla en su interior todo tipo de usos sin distinción, repercute un menor coste por unidad de superficie edificada y comparte su frente reduciendo los intercambios térmicos y lumínicos. Sin embargo la ciudad de fondo reducido ajusta la forma al uso y se desarrolla linealmente con repetitividad a lo largo de sus frentes exteriores. En ella, el fuerte intercambio energético se opone a las grandes posibilidades del espacio libre. En cambio desde la casa las distintas medidas del fondo se producen bajo determinados condicionantes: clima, compacidad, ocupación, hibridación, tamaño de casa, etc., mientras que el tipo se desarrolla en base a una métrica afín. Este trabajo parte de esta dialéctica. Estudia la relación de dependencia entre las condiciones del edificio de viviendas y su métrica. Jerarquiza edificios en base al parámetro “fondo” para constituir una herramienta que como un ábaco sea capaz de visibilizar las dinámicas relacionales entre configuración y métrica bajo la condición de alta densidad. Para ello en una primera fase se gestiona una extensa muestra de edificios representativos de vivienda colectiva principalmente europea, extraída de tres prestigiosos libros en forma de repertorio. Se ordenan y categorizan extrayendo datos conmensurables y temas principales que ligan la profundidad de la huella a la morfología y posteriormente, esta información se estudia en diagramas que ponen de manifiesto convergencias y divergencias, acumulaciones y vacíos, límites, intervalos característicos, márgenes y ejes, parámetros y atributos... cuya relación trata de factorizar el lugar morfológico y métrico de la casa como metavivienda y ciudad. La herramienta se establece así como un complejo marco relacional en el que posicionar casos concretos y trazar nexos transversales, tanto de tipo morfológico como cultural, climático o técnico, normativo o tecnológico. Cada nuevo caso o traza añadida produce consonancias y disonancias en el marco que requieren interpretación y verificación. De este modo este instrumento de análisis comparativo se tempera, se especializa, se completa y se perfecciona con su uso. La forma de la residencia en la ciudad densa se muestra así sobre un subsistema morfológico unitario y su entendimiento se hace más fácilmente alcanzable y acumulable tanto para investigaciones posteriores como para el aprendizaje o el ejercicio profesional. ABSTRACT This research study offers a tool to approach the morphometric space in which (multi-family) housing defines high-density cities. Multi-family housing is the basic cell of the city. The configuration and dimension studies of the urban fabric render the importance of building depth as a key parameter half way between the dwelling and the city. The building depth traces de limit of architecture in the city. It qualifies and quantifies the urban territory. Its dynamics characterize the different environments while in its essence, an adjustment process of continuous verification and adaption defines type. The shape of the city and its different configuration possibilities —in terms of built fabric and public space, always keeping an eye on the relationship between them— depend majorly on the building depth. Therefore, it is a relevant parameter that relates the diverse configurations between interior and exterior space. When designing, once the depth is established, some properties are easily adpated. However, others require a certain degree of interpretation or have to be left out of the study. Given a ceratin surface, the establishment of the depth forces the dimensions of the facade in the different configurations. Both depth and facade dimensions are crucial for the form factor of the built mass. Its relationship produces a complex range of possibilities. From an urban point of view, great depth means multiple uses (making no distinction whatsoever,) it presents a lower cost per unit of built area and shares its facade optimizing temperature and light exchange. On the contrary, the city of reduced depth adjusts its shape to the use, and develops linearly and repetitively along its facades. The strong energy exchange opposes to the great possibilities of free space. From the perspective of the dwelling, the different dimensions of depth are produced under certain determinants: climate, compactness, occupancy, hybridization, dwelling size, etc. Meanwhile, the type is developed based on a related meter (as in poetry). This work starts from the previous premise. It studies the dependency relation bewteen the conditions of the dwellings and their meter (dimensions). It organizes buildings hierarchically based on the parameter “depth” to create a tool that, as an abacus, is able to visibilise the relational dynamics between configuration and dimension in high density conditions. For this, in the first stage a large group of representative multi-family housing buildings is managed, mostly from Europe, picked from three prestigious books as a repertoir. They are categorized and ordered drawing commensurable data and key issues that link the depth of the fooprint to its morphology. Later, this information is studied deeply with diagrams that bring out connections and discrepancies, voids and accumulations, limits, charasteristic intervals, margins and axii, parameters, attributes, etc. These relationships try to create factors from a morphological and metrical point of view of the house as a metadwelling. This tool is established as a complex relation frame in which case studies are postitioned and cross-cutting nexii are traced. These can deal with morphology, climate, technique, law or technology. Each new case or nexus produces affinities and discrepancies that require interpretation and verification. Thus, this instrument of comparative analysis is fine-tuned, especialized and completed as its use is improved. The way housing is understood in high density cities is shown as a unitary metric subsystem and its understanding is easy to reach and accumulate for future researchers, students or practicing architects.

Fernando García Mercadal y el Movimiento Moderno

La tesis plantea el estudio de la figura de Fernando García Mercadal (1896- 1985) y su obra, en el contexto del proyecto moderno perteneciente a la racionalidad teórica colectiva de la segunda generación del Movimiento Moderno en Europa, y explora la vida y circunstancias de un arquitecto que aunque nacido en el XIX, trajo la modernidad a España. El Movimiento Moderno en España, se articula en las décadas de los años 20 y 30 a través del GATEPAC y un grupo de arquitectos racionalistas en Madrid que Carlos Flores denomina Generación del 1925. Fernando García Mercadal, primero de su promoción en 1921 y pensionado en Roma, pertenece a ambos y pronto se convierte junto con Josep Lluis Sert, en una de las figuras más relevantes del panorama moderno español. Único miembro fundador del GATEPAC que había nacido en el siglo XIX, publica habitualmente en la revista AC (1931-1937), y en la revista Arquitectura desde 1920. Organiza en la Residencia de Estudiantes, entre 1928 y 1932, un famoso ciclo de Conferencias que imparten Le Corbusier, Mendelsohn, Van Doesburg, Gropius y Giedion. También asiste a la reunión constituyente de los CIAM en La Sarraz en 1928, al CIAM II en Frankfurt en 1929 y al CIAM III en Bruselas en 1930. Fue profesor en la Escuela de Arquitectura de Madrid y Arquitecto Jefe de la Oficina de Urbanismo y de Parques y Jardines del Ayuntamiento de Madrid, cargo al que accede por oposición en 1932. Tras la guerra fue depurado e inhabilitado profesionalmente, hasta que en 1946 comienza a trabajar en el Departamento de Arquitectura del I.N.P. donde continúa hasta los años 70. En 1979 es nombrado Académico de número de la Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando y muere en Madrid en 1985. Estos son los datos conocidos y aunque en la tesis se aportan nuevos datos inéditos, es en las premisas para su interpretación donde este trabajo de investigación pone el acento. En la historiografía de nuestra arquitectura moderna, pervive una tendencia a suponer una desconexión entre la vanguardia arquitectónica en los años 20 y 30 y el movimiento moderno internacional. El manto de silencio que cayó sobre la generación anterior a la guerra, una vez terminada esta, contribuye a reforzar la idea, cuyo origen y causas exceden el ámbito de trabajo, aunque se tratarán tangencialmente por ser ineludible hacerlo. La tesis pone en cuestión ese planteamiento desde el convencimiento fundamentado en los datos y en la consulta de fuentes originales, que la arquitectura española anterior a la guerra, aun con las circunstancias particulares del país, estuvo en sintonía con la europea, siendo esta la hipótesis de partida de la investigación. Las aportaciones más significativas que, a mi entender, presenta la tesis doctoral, y tienen mayor originalidad, son las siguientes; 1.Puesta en valor de la arquitectura de FGM, antes y después de la guerra, abandonando la idea de su supuesta renuncia a las ideas modernas a partir de los 30; 2. Puesta en valor, con aportación de datos concretos, de la Intensa relación mantenida por FGM y otros arquitectos españoles del Movimiento Moderno con los arquitectos de igual tendencia en el resto de Europa, a través de contactos recíprocos y continuos; 3. Estudio de la obra de FGM en el marco del Movimiento Moderno como una nueva arquitectura basada no tanto en la epidermis, como en una forma de hacer y encarar los problemas donde el proceso es tan importante como el resultado; con el Urbanismo como una nueva ciencia, y con el desarrollo de nuevos programas funcionales acordes a las necesidades de la sociedad contemporánea como el Rincón de Goya y el Hospital de Zaragoza. Se manejan tres métodos de trabajo. Los dos primeros aportan un nuevo enfoque al análisis crítico de FGM y su obra, situándole en el contexto internacional, además del español. El tercero, de carácter instrumental, permite el manejo y sistematización de la documentación. El primer método, consiste en aplicar el criterio generacional de Pevsner o Giedion entre otros, al Movimiento Moderno en España, situando a Fernando García Mercadal como arquitecto de la segunda generación, para hacer un análisis crítico comparativo de su trayectoria con otros arquitectos europeos de la misma, que permita establecer semejanzas y diferencias. El segundo método, complementario al anterior, consiste en estudiar las relaciones internacionales de FGM con las figuras más próximas a él y sus posibles influencias. Por último, y en relación con la documentación de obras y proyectos, se manejan a su vez dos criterios. Para la obra completa, y debido a la inexistencia de originales del Legado García Mercadal, se utiliza con carácter general el material ya publicado, disperso en libros y revistas. En el caso de las cinco obras seleccionadas, se completa con búsqueda en archivos, toma de datos in situ actualizados cuando es posible, y una recopilación de su repercusión en prensa escrita de su momento. ABSTRACT This research study focuses on Fernando Garcia Mercadal (1896-1985) and his work in the context of the Modern project as part of the collective theoretical rationality of the second generation of European Modern architecture. It explores the life and circumstances of the architect, who even though born in 19th century introduced Modern architecture in Spain. Modern architecture (Modern Movement) in Spain covered two decades between 20's and 30's through GATEPAC and a group of rationalists in Madrid that Carlos Flores named “generation of '25”. Fernando Garcia Mercadal, top of his class in 1921 and granted with the scholarship in Rome, belonged to both groups and early in his career he became, along with Josep Lluis Sert, one of the most relevant figures of Modern Architecture in Spain. He was the only member of GATEPAC who was born in 19th century. He frequently published on the magazine “AC” (1931-1937) and on “Arquitecture” magazine since 1920. He organized a series of famous lectures at “Residencia de Estudiantes” (Madrid) between 1928 and 1932 in which Le Corbusier, Mendelsohn, Van Doesburg, Gropius or Giedion took part. He was a member of the constituent meeting of CIAM in La Sarraz in 1928, CIAM II in Frankfurt in 1929 and CIAM III in Brussels in 1930. Mercadal was a teacher at Escuela de Arquitectura de Madrid and the Chief of the Urban Planning, Parks and Gardens Office of the Council of Madrid. He earned his position by public examination in 1932. After the civil war he was disqualified professionally until 1946, when he started working at the Architecture Department at INP until 70's. In 1979 he was elected as an academic member of “Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando” and later died in 1985. These are the well-known facts and even though this research study provides unpublished facts, it focuses on the premises to interpret them. Throughout the historiographical discourse of Spanish Modern architecture there is a tendency to assume a disconnection between the Avant-garde architecture movements in 20's and 30's and International Modern architecture (Modern Movement). The generation preceding the war remained silent in regard to this issue and once the war was over, they contributed to support the disconnection. The origin and cause exceed the frame of this work, even though they are incidentally commented due to its importance. This research study questions the approach explained above, based on the facts and the original sources. Its first hypothesis states that Spanish architecture before the civil war was, under its own circumstances, in tune with European architecture. The most important and original contributions of this research study are the following under my point of view: 1. To highlight the architecture of FGM, before and after the war, leaving behind his reputed withdrawal of Modernity after 30's; 2. To highlight the intense relationship between FGM and other Modern Spanish architects and other European architects sharing the same ideas, providing detailed facts; 3. Study of FGM's work in the context of Modern architecture as a new architecture based on its know-how and the way problems are faced. The process is as important as the result, not so much based on the dermis; with urban planning as the new science and with the development of the new functional programs based on the needs of contemporary society as in Rincón de Goya or Hospital de Zaragoza. Three work methods are used. The first two add a new vision of the critical analysis related to FGM and his work, positioning him in the international context in addition to Spain. The third is used as an instrument to manage and systematize the documentation. The first method applies the generational criteria of Pevsner or Giedion (among others) to Modern architecture in Spain, positioning Fernando Garcia Mercadal as a second generation architect. A critical-comparative analysis of his career and contemporary European architects is made to establish similarities and differences. The second method is complementary to the previous one and studies the international relationships of FGM with other recognised architects that were close to him and their possible influences. At last, in relation to his works and projects, two methods are used. For the complete works, due to the lack of originals, published material found on magazines and books is used as the source. In the case of the five selected buildings, it is complemented with archive search, onsite data collection when possible and the impact on the press at that moment.

Postcard: Buildings of Lincoln University

https://bluetigercommons.lincolnu.edu/postcards/1005/thumbnail.jpg

Alternatively spliced mRNAs predicted to yield frame-shift proteins and stable intron 1 RNAs of the herpes simplex virus 1 regulatory gene alpha 0 accumulate in the cytoplasm of infected cells.

The infected cell protein no. 0 (ICP0), the product of the alpha 0 gene, and an important herpes simplex virus 1 regulatory protein is encoded by three exons. We report that intron 1 forms a family of four stable nonpolyadenylylated cytoplasmic RNAs sharing a common 5' end but differing in 3' ends. The 5' and 3' ends correspond to the accepted splice donor and four splice acceptor sites within the mapped intron domain. The most distant splice acceptor site yields the mRNA encoding the 775-aa protein known as ICP0. The mRNAs resulting from the use of alternative splice acceptor sites were also present in the cytoplasm of infected cells and would be predicted to encode proteins of 152 (ICP0-B), 87 (ICP0-C), and 90 (ICP0-D) amino acids, respectively. Both the stability of the alpha 0 mRNA and the utilization of at least one splice acceptor site was regulated by ICP22 and or US1.5 protein inasmuch as cells infected with a mutant from which these genes had been deleted accumulated smaller amounts of alpha 0 mRNA than would be predicted from the amounts of accumulated intron RNAs. In addition, one splice acceptor site was at best underutilized. These results indicate that both the splicing pattern and longevity of alpha 0 mRNA are regulated. These and other recent examples indicate that herpes simplex virus 1 regulates its own gene expression and that of the infected cells through control of mRNA splicing and longevity.

Open reading frame P--a herpes simplex virus gene repressed during productive infection encodes a protein that binds a splicing factor and reduces synthesis of viral proteins made from spliced mRNA.

The open reading frame P (ORF P) is located in the domain and on the DNA strand of the herpes simplex virus 1 transcribed during latent infection. ORF P is not expressed in productively infected cells as a consequence of repression by the binding of the major viral regulatory protein to its high-affinity binding site. In cells infected with a mutant virus carrying a derepressed gene, ORF P protein is extensively posttranslationally processed. We report that ORF P interacts with a component of the splicing factor SF2/ASF, pulls down a component of the SM antigens, and colocalizes with splicing factors in nuclei of infected cells. The hypothesis that ORF P protein may act to regulate viral gene expression, particularly in situations such as latently infected sensory neurons in which the major regulatory protein is not expressed, is supported by the evidence that in cells infected with a mutant in which the ORF P gene was derepressed, the products of the regulatory genes alpha 0 and alpha 22 are reduced in amounts early in infection but recover late in infection. The proteins encoded by these genes are made from spliced mRNAs, and the extent of recovery of these proteins late in infection correlates with the extent of accumulation of post-translationally processed forms of ORF P protein.

The open reading frame of bamboo mosaic potexvirus satellite RNA is not essential for its replication and can be replaced with a bacterial gene.

A satellite RNA of 836 nt depends on the bamboo mosaic potexvirus (BaMV) for its replication and encapsulation. The BaMV satellite RNA (satBaMV) contains a single open reading frame encoding a 20-kDa nonstructural protein. A full-length infectious cDNA clone has been generated downstream of the T7 RNA polymerase promoter. To investigate the role of the 20-kDa protein encoded by satBaMV, satBaMV transcripts containing mutations in the open reading frame were tested for their ability to replicate in barley protoplasts and in Chenopodium quinoa using BaMV RNA as a helper genome. Unlike other large satellite RNAs, mutants in the open reading frame did not block their replication, suggesting that the 20-kDa protein is not essential for satBaMV replication. Precise replacement of the open reading frame with sequences encoding chloramphenicol acetyltransferase resulted in high level expression of chloramphenicol acetyltransferase in infected C. quinoa, indicating that satBaMV is potentially useful as a satellite-based expression vector.

Expression of protein encoded by varicella-zoster virus open reading frame 63 in latently infected human ganglionic neurons.

The ganglionic cell type in which varicella-zoster virus (VZV) is latent in humans was analyzed by using antibodies raised against in vitro-expressed VZV open reading frame 63 protein. VZV open reading frame 63 protein was detected exclusively in the cytoplasm of neurons of latently infected human trigeminal and thoracic ganglia. This is, to our knowledge, the first identification of a herpesvirus protein expressed during latency in the human nervous system.

Production of infectious human respiratory syncytial virus from cloned cDNA confirms an essential role for the transcription elongation factor from the 5' proximal open reading frame of the M2 mRNA in gene expression and provides a capability for vaccine development.

Infectious human respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) was produced by the intracellular coexpression of five plasmid-borne cDNAs. One cDNA encoded a complete positive-sense version of the RSV genome (corresponding to the replicative intermediate RNA or antigenome), and each of the other four encoded a separate RSV protein, namely, the major nucleocapsid N protein, the nucleocapsid P phosphoprotein, the major polymerase L protein, or the protein from the 5' proximal open reading frame of the M2 mRNA [M2(ORF1)]. RSV was not produced if any of the five plasmids was omitted. The requirement for the M2(ORF1) protein is consistent with its recent identification as a transcription elongation factor and confirms its importance for RSV gene expression. It should thus be possible to introduce defined changes into infectious RSV. This should be useful for basic studies of RSV molecular biology and pathogenesis; in addition, there are immediate applications to the development of live attenuated vaccine strains bearing predetermined defined attenuating mutations.

Hydrophobic cluster analysis predicts an amino-terminal domain of varicella-zoster virus open reading frame 10 required for transcriptional activation.

Varicella-zoster virus open reading frame 10 (ORF10) protein, the homolog of the herpes simplex virus protein VP16, can transactivate immediate-early promoters from both viruses. A protein sequence comparison procedure termed hydrophobic cluster analysis was used to identify a motif centered at Phe-28, near the amino terminus of ORF10, that strongly resembles the sequence of the activating domain surrounding Phe-442 of VP16. With a series of GAL4-ORF10 fusion proteins, we mapped the ORF10 transcriptional-activation domain to the amino-terminal region (aa 5-79). Extensive mutagenesis of Phe-28 in GAL4-ORF10 fusion proteins demonstrated the importance of an aromatic or bulky hydrophobic amino acid at this position, as shown previously for Phe-442 of VP16. Transactivation by the native ORF10 protein was abolished when Phe-28 was replaced by Ala. Similar amino-terminal domains were identified in the VP16 homologs of other alphaherpesviruses. Hydrophobic cluster analysis correctly predicted activation domains of ORF10 and VP16 that share critical characteristics of a distinctive subclass of acidic activation domains.

Forensic analysis of buildings affected by mining subsidence based on Differential Interferometry (Part III)

This work presents a forensic analysis of buildings affected by mining subsidence, which is based on deformation data obtained by Differential Interferometry (DInSAR). The proposed test site is La Union village (Murcia, SE Spain) where subsidence was triggered in an industrial area due to the collapse of abandoned underground mining labours occurred in 1998. In the first part of this work the study area was introduced, describing the spatial and temporal evolution of ground subsidence, through the elaboration of a cracks map on the buildings located within the affected area. In the second part, the evolution of the most significant cracks found in the most damaged buildings was monitored using biaxial extensometric units and inclinometers. This article describes the work performed in the third part, where DInSAR processing of satellite radar data, available between 1998 and 2008, has permitted to determine the spatial and temporal evolution of the deformation of all the buildings of the study area in a period when no continuous in situ instrumental data is available. Additionally, the comparison of these results with the forensic data gathered in the 2005–2008 period, reveal that there is a coincidence between damaged buildings, buildings where extensometers register significant movements of cracks, and buildings deformation estimated from radar data. As a result, it has been demonstrated that the integration of DInSAR data into forensic analysis methodologies contributes to improve significantly the assessment of the damages of buildings affected by mining subsidence.

A methodology for evacuation route planning inside buildings using geospatial technology

Evacuation route planning is a fundamental task for building engineering projects. Safety regulations are established so that all occupants are driven on time out of a building to a secure place when faced with an emergency situation. As an example, Spanish building code requires the planning of evacuation routes on large and, usually, public buildings. Engineers often plan these routes on single building projects, repeatedly assigning clusters of rooms to each emergency exit in a trial-and-error process. But problems may arise for a building complex where distribution and use changes make visual analysis cumbersome and sometimes unfeasible. This problem could be solved by using well-known spatial analysis techniques, implemented as a specialized software able to partially emulate engineer reasoning. In this paper we propose and test an easily reproducible methodology that makes use of free and open source software components for solving a case study. We ran a complete test on a building floor at the University of Alicante (Spain). This institution offers a web service (WFS) that allows retrieval of 2D geometries from any building within its campus. We demonstrate how geospatial technologies and computational geometry algorithms can be used for automating the creation and optimization of evacuation routes. In our case study, the engineers’ task is to verify that the load capacity of each emergency exit does not exceed the standards specified by Spain’s current regulations. Using Dijkstra’s algorithm, we obtain the shortest paths from every room to the most appropriate emergency exit. Once these paths are calculated, engineers can run simulations and validate, based on path statistics, different cluster configurations. Techniques and tools applied in this research would be helpful in the design and risk management phases of any complex building project.