Benthic and fish community composition as well as water quality along the Thousand Islands north of the megacity Jakarta, Indonesia

Worldwide, coral reefs are challenged by multiple stressors due to growing urbanization, industrialization and coastal development. Coral reefs along the Thousand Islands off Jakarta, one of the largest megacities worldwide, have degraded dramatically over recent decades. The shift and decline in coral cover and composition has been extensively studied with a focus on large-scale gradients (i.e. regional drivers), however special focus on local drivers in shaping spatial community composition is still lacking. Here, the spatial impact of anthropogenic stressors on local and regional scales on coral reefs north of Jakarta was investigated. Results indicate that the direct impact of Jakarta is mainly restricted to inshore reefs, separating reefs in Jakarta Bay from reefs along the Thousand Islands further north. A spatial patchwork of differentially degraded reefs is present along the islands as a result of localized anthropogenic effects rather than regional gradients. Pollution is the main anthropogenic stressor, with over 80 % of variation in benthic community composition driven by sedimentation rate, NO2, PO4 and Chlorophyll a. Thus, the spatial structure of reefs is directly related to intense anthropogenic pressure from local as well as regional sources. Therefore, improved spatial management that accounts for both local and regional stressors is needed for effective marine conservation.

Chemical versus structural defense against fish predation in two dominant soft coral species (Xeniidae) in the Red Sea

Soft corals of the family Xeniidae are particularly abundant in Red Sea coral reefs. Their success may be partly due to a strong defense mechanism against fish predation. To test this, we conducted field and aquarium experiments in which we assessed the antifeeding effect of secondary metabolites of 2 common xeniid species, Ovabunda crenata and Heteroxenia ghardaqensis. In the field experiment, the metabolites of both investigated species reduced feeding on experimental food pellets in the natural population of Red Sea reef fishes by 86 and 92% for O. crenata and H. ghardaqensis, respectively. In the aquarium experiment, natural concentration of crude extract reduced feeding on experimental food pellets in the common reef fish Thalassoma lunare (moon wrasse) by 83 and 85%, respectively. Moon wrasse feeding was even reduced at extract concentrations as low as 12.5% of the natural concentration in living soft coral tissues. To assess the potential of a structural anti-feeding defence, sclerites of O. crenata were extracted and mixed into food pellets at natural, doubled and reduced concentration without and in combination with crude extract at 25% of natural concentration, and tested in an aquarium experiment. The sclerites did not show any effect on the feeding behavior of the moon wrasse indicating that sclerites provide structural support rather than antifeeding defense. H. ghardaqensis lacks sclerites. We conclude that the conspicuous abundance of xeniid soft coral species in the Red Sea is likely a consequence of a strong chemical defence, rather than physical defences, against potential predators.

Metabolic rates and tissue composition of the coral Pocillopora verrucosa over 12 latitudes in the Red Sea characterized by strong temperature and nutrient gradient

Global warming was reported to cause growth reductions in tropical shallow water corals in both, cooler and warmer, regions of the coral species range. This suggests regional adaptation with less heat-tolerant populations in cooler and more thermo-tolerant populations in warmer regions. Here, we investigated seasonal changes in the in situ metabolic performance of the widely distributed hermatypic coral Pocillopora verrucosa along 12 degrees latitudes featuring a steep temperature gradient between the northern (28.5 degrees N, 21-27 degrees C) and southern (16.5 degrees N, 28-33 degrees C) reaches of the Red Sea. Surprisingly, we found little indication for regional adaptation, but strong indications for high phenotypic plasticity: Calcification rates in two seasons (winter, summer) were found to be highest at 28-29 degrees C throughout all populations independent of their geographic location. Mucus release increased with temperature and nutrient supply, both being highest in the south. Genetic characterization of the coral host revealed low inter-regional variation and differences in the Symbiodinium clade composition only at the most northern and most southern region. This suggests variable acclimatization potential to ocean warming of coral populations across the Red Sea: high acclimatization potential in northern populations, but limited ability to cope with ocean warming in southern populations already existing at the upper thermal margin for corals

Spectral reflectance library of selected biotic and abiotic coral reef features in Heron Reef

Underwater spectral reflectance was measured for selected biotic and abiotic coral reef features of Heron Reef from June 25-30, 2006. Spectral reflectance's of 105 different benthic types were obtained in-situ. An Ocean Optics USB2000 spectrometer was deployed in an custom made underwater housing with a 0.5 m fiber-optic probe mounted next to an artificial light source. Spectral readings were collected with the probe(bear fibre) about 5 cm from the target to ensure that the target would fill the field of view of the fiber optic (FOV diameter ~4.4 cm), as well as to reduce the attenuating effect of the intermediate water (Roelfsema et al., 2006). Spectral readings included for one target included: 1 reading of the covered spectral fibre to correct for instrument noise, 1 reading of spectralon panel mounted on divers wrist to measure incident ambient light, and 8 readings of the target. Spectral reflectance was calculated for each target by first subtracting the instrument noise reading from each other reading. The corrected target readings were then divided by the corrected spectralon reading resulting in spectral reflectance of each target reading. An average target spectral reflectance was calculated by averaging the eight individual spectral reflectance's of the target. If an individual target spectral reflectance was visual considered an outlier, it was not included in the average spectral reflectance calculation. See Roelfsema at al. (2006) for additional info on the methodology of underwater spectra collection.