The role of mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway and synaptic protein GABAA-R in cortical GABAergic cell connectivity

Quelque 30 % de la population neuronale du cortex mammalien est composée d’une population très hétérogène d’interneurones GABAergiques. Ces interneurones diffèrent quant à leur morphologie, leur expression génique, leurs propriétés électrophysiologiques et leurs cibles subcellulaires, formant une riche diversité. Après leur naissance dans les éminences ganglioniques, ces cellules migrent vers les différentes couches corticales. Les interneurones GABAergiques corticaux exprimant la parvalbumin (PV), lesquels constituent le sous-type majeur des interneurones GABAergiques, ciblent spécifiquement le soma et les dendrites proximales des neurones principaux et des neurones PV+. Ces interneurones sont nommés cellules à panier (Basket Cells –BCs) en raison de la complexité morphologique de leur axone. La maturation de la connectivité distincte des BCs PV+, caractérisée par une augmentation de la complexité de l’axone et de la densité synaptique, se déroule graduellement chez la souris juvénile. Des travaux précédents ont commencé à élucider les mécanismes contrôlant ce processus de maturation, identifiant des facteurs génétiques, l’activité neuronale ainsi que l’expérience sensorielle. Cette augmentation marquante de la complexité axonale et de la synaptogénèse durant cette phase de maturation suggère la nécessité d’une synthèse de protéines élevée. La voie de signalisation de la cible mécanistique de la rapamycine (Mechanistic Target Of Rapamycin -mTOR) a été impliquée dans le contrôle de plusieurs aspects neurodéveloppementaux en régulant la synthèse de protéines. Des mutations des régulateurs Tsc1 et Tsc2 du complexe mTOR1 causent la sclérose tubéreuse (TSC) chez l’humain. La majorité des patients TSC développent des problèmes neurologiques incluant des crises épileptiques, des retards mentaux et l’autisme. D’études récentes ont investigué le rôle de la dérégulation de la voie de signalisation de mTOR dans les neurones corticaux excitateurs. Toutefois, son rôle dans le développement des interneurones GABAergiques corticaux et la contribution spécifique de ces interneurones GABAergiques altérés dans les manifestations de la maladie demeurent largement inconnus. Ici, nous avons investigué si et comment l’ablation du gène Tsc1 perturbe le développement de la connectivité GABAergique, autant in vitro que in vivo. Pour investiguer le rôle de l’activation de mTORC1 dans le développement d’une BC unique, nous avons délété le gène Tsc1 en transfectant CRE-GFP dirigé par un promoteur spécifique aux BCs dans des cultures organotypiques provenant de souris Tsc1lox. Le knockdown in vitro de Tsc1 a causé une augmentation précoce de la densité des boutons et des embranchements terminaux formés par les BCs mutantes, augmentation renversée par le traitement à la rapamycine. Ces données suggèrent que l’hyperactivation de la voie de signalisation de mTOR affecte le rythme de la maturation des synapses des BCs. Pour investiguer le rôle de mTORC1 dans les interneurones GABAergiques in vivo, nous avons croisé les souris Tsc1lox avec les souris Nkx2.1-Cre et PV-Cre. À P18, les souris Tg(Nkx2.1-Cre);Tsc1flox/flox ont montré une hyperactivation de mTORC1 et une hypertrophie somatique des BCs de même qu’une augmentation de l’expression de PV dans la région périsomatique des neurones pyramidaux. Au contraire, à P45 nous avons découvert une réduction de la densité des punctas périsomatiques PV-gephyrin (un marqueur post-synaptique GABAergique). L’étude de la morphologie des BCs en cultures organotypiques provenant du knock-out conditionnel Nkx2.1-Cre a confirmé l’augmentation initiale du rythme de maturation, lequel s’effondre ensuite aux étapes développementales tardives. De plus, les souris Tg(Nkx2.1Cre);Tsc1flox/flox montrent des déficits dans la mémoire de travail et le comportement social et ce d’une façon dose-dépendante. En somme, ces résultats suggèrent que l’activation contrôlée de mTOR régule le déroulement de la maturation et la maintenance des synapses des BCs. Des dysfonctions de la neurotransmission GABAergique ont été impliquées dans des maladies telles que l’épilepsie et chez certains patients, elles sont associées avec des mutations du récepteur GABAA. De quelle façon ces mutations affectent le processus de maturation des BCs demeuret toutefois inconnu. Pour adresser cette question, nous avons utilisé la stratégie Cre-lox pour déléter le gène GABRA1, codant pour la sous-unité alpha-1 du récepteur GABAA dans une unique BC en culture organotypique. La perte de GABRA1 réduit l’étendue du champ d’innervation des BCs, suggérant que des variations dans les entrées inhibitrices en raison de l’absence de la sous-unité GABAAR α1 peuvent affecter le développement des BCs. La surexpression des sous-unités GABAAR α1 contenant des mutations identifiées chez des patients épileptiques ont montré des effets similaires en termes d’étendue du champ d’innervation des BCs. Pour approfondir, nous avons investigué les effets de ces mutations identifiées chez l’humain dans le développement des épines des neurones pyramidaux, lesquelles sont l’endroit privilégié pour la formation des synapses excitatrices. Somme toute, ces données montrent pour la première fois que différentes mutations de GABRA1 associées à des syndromes épileptiques peuvent affecter les épines dendritiques et la formation des boutons GABAergiques d’une façon mutation-spécifique.

Gene expression during early ascidian metamorphosis requires signaling by Hemps, an EGF-like protein

Hemps, a novel epidermal growth factor (EGF)-like protein, is expressed during larval development and early metamorphosis in the ascidian Herdmania curvata and plays a direct role in triggering metamorphosis. In order to identify downstream genes in the Hemps pathway we used a gene expression profiling approach, in which we compared post-larvae undergoing normal metamorphosis with larval metamorphosis blocked with an anti-Hemps antibody. Molecular profiling revealed that there are dynamic changes in gene expression within the first 30 minutes of normal metamorphosis with a significant portion of the genome (approximately 49%) being activated or repressed. A more detailed analysis of the expression of 15 of these differentially expressed genes through embryogenesis, larval development and metamorphosis revealed that while there is a diversity of temporal expression patterns, a number of genes are transiently expressed during larval development and metamorphosis. These and other differentially expressed genes were localised to a range of specific cell and tissue types in Herdmania larvae and post-larvae. The expression of approximately 24% of the genes that were differentially expressed during early metamorphosis was affected in larvae treated with the anti-Hemps antibody. Knockdown of Hemps activity affected the expression of a range of genes within 30 minutes of induction, suggesting that the Hemps pathway directly regulates early response genes at metamorphosis. In most cases, it appears that the Hemps pathway contributes to the modulation of gene expression, rather than initial gene activation or repression. A total of 151 genes that displayed the greatest alterations in expression in response to anti-Hemps antibody were sequenced. These genes were implicated in a range of developmental and physiological roles, including innate immunity, signal transduction and in the regulation of gene transcription. These results suggest that there is significant gene activity during the very early stages of H. curvata metamorphosis and that the Hemps pathway plays a key role in regulating the expression of many of these genes.

Nedd4-2 functionally interacts with ClC-5 - Involvement in constitutive albumin endocytosis in proximal tubule cells

Constitutive albumin uptake by the proximal tubule is achieved by a receptor-mediated process in which the Cl- channel, ClC-5, plays an obligate role. Here we investigated the functional interaction between ClC-5 and ubiquitin ligases Nedd4 and Nedd4-2 and their role in albumin uptake in opossum kidney proximal tubule (OK) cells. In vivo immunoprecipitation using an anti-HECT antibody demonstrated that ClC-5 bound to ubiquitin ligases, whereas glutathione S-transferase pull-downs confirmed that the C terminus of ClC-5 bound both Nedd4 and Nedd4-2. Nedd4-2 alone was able to alter ClC-5 currents in Xenopus oocytes by decreasing cell surface expression of ClC-5. In OK cells, a physiological concentration of albumin (10 mug/ml) rapidly increased cell surface expression of ClC-5, which was also accompanied by the ubiquitination of ClC-5. Albumin uptake was reduced by inhibiting either the lysosome or proteasome. Total levels of Nedd4-2 and proteasome activity also increased rapidly in response to albumin. Overexpression of ligase defective Nedd4-2 or knockdown of endogenous Nedd4-2 with small interfering RNA resulted in significant decreases in albumin uptake. In contrast, pathophysiological concentrations of albumin (100 and 1000 mug/ml) reduced the levels of ClC-5 and Nedd4-2 and the activity of the proteasome to the levels seen in the absence of albumin. These data demonstrate that normal constitutive uptake of albumin by the proximal tubule requires Nedd4-2, which may act via ubiquitination to shunt ClC-5 into the endocytic pathway.

E-cadherin transport from the trans-Golgi network in tubulovesicular carriers is selectively regulated by Golgin-97

E-cadherin is a cell-cell adhesion protein that is trafficked and delivered to the basolateral cell surface. Membrane-bound carriers for the post-Golgi exocytosis of E-cadherin have not been characterized. Green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged E-cadherin (Ecad-GFP) is transported from the trans-Golgi network (TGN) to the recycling endosome on its way to the cell surface in tubulovesicular carriers that resemble TGN tubules labeled by members of the golgin family of tethering proteins. Here, we examine the association of golgins with tubular carriers containing E-cadherin as cargo. Fluorescent GRIP domains from golgin proteins replicate the membrane binding of the full-length proteins and were coexpressed with Ecad-GFP. The GRIP domains of p230/golgin-245 and golgin-97 had overlapping but nonidentical distributions on the TGN; both domains were on TGN-derived tubules but only the golgin-97 GRIP domain coincided with Ecad-GFP tubules in live cells. When the Arl1-binding endogenous golgins, p230/golgin-245 and golgin-97 were displaced from Golgi membranes by overexpression of the p230 GRIP domain, trafficking of Ecad-GFP was inhibited. siRNA knockdown of golgin-97 also inhibited trafficking of Ecad-GFP. Thus, the GRIP domains of p230/golgin-245 and golgin-97 bind discriminately to distinct membrane subdomains of the TGN. Golgin-97 is identified as a selective and essential component of the tubulovesicular carriers transporting E-cadherin out of the TGN.

Zebrafish as a model for caveolin-associated muscle disease; caveolin-3 is required for myofibril organization and muscle cell patterning

Caveolae are an abundant feature of many animal cells. However, the exact function of caveolae remains unclear. We have used the zebrafish, Danio rerio, as a system to understand caveolae function focusing on the muscle-specific caveolar protein, caveolin-3 (Cav3). We have identified caveolin-1 (alpha and beta), caveolin-2 and Cav3 in the zebrafish. Zebrafish Cav3 has 72% identity to human CAV3, and the amino acids altered in human muscle diseases are conserved in the zebrafish protein. During embryonic development, cav3 expression is apparent by early segmentation stages in the first differentiating muscle precursors, the adaxial cells and slightly later in the notochord. cav3 expression appears in the somites during mid-segmentation stages and then later in the pectoral fins and facial muscles. Cav3 and caveolae are located along the entire sarcolemma of late stage embryonic muscle fibers, whereas beta-dystroglycan is restricted to the muscle fiber ends. Down-regulation of Cav3 expression causes gross muscle abnormalities and uncoordinated movement. Ultrastructural analysis of isolated muscle fibers reveals defects in myoblast fusion and disorganized myofibril and membrane systems. Expression of the zebrafish equivalent to a human muscular dystrophy mutant, CAV3P104L, causes severe disruption of muscle differentiation. In addition, knockdown of Cav3 resulted in a dramatic up-regulation of eng1a expression resulting in an increase in the number of muscle pioneer-like cells adjacent to the notochord. These studies provide new insights into the role of Cav3 in muscle development and demonstrate its requirement for correct intracellular organization and myoblast fusion.

Zebrafish KLF4 is essential for anterior mesendoderm/pre-polster differentiation and hatching

Gene knockout studies of Kruppel-like factors (KLFs) in mice have shown essential roles in organogenesis. A screen for KLF family members in zebrafish identified many KLFs. One of these, zebrafish KLF4 (zKLF4) is the homologue of neptune, a Xenopus laevis KLF. zKLF4 is expressed from approximately 80% epiboly a patch of dorsal/anterior mesendodermal cells called the pre-polster and, subsequently, in the polster and hatching gland. Here we investigate the function of zKLF4 using morpholino-based antisense oligonucleotides. Knockdown of zKLF4 resulted in complete absence of hatching gland formation and subsequent hatching in zebrafish. In addition, there was early knockdown of expression of the pre-polster/anterior mesendoderm markers CatL, cap1, and BMP4. These results indicate zKLF4 is expressed within the pre-polster, an early mesendodermal site, and that it plays a critical role in the differentiation of these cells into hatching gland cells.

Inhibition of S/G(2) phase CDK4 reduces mitotic fidelity

Cyclin-dependent kinase 4 (CDK4)/cyclin D has a key role in regulating progression through late G(1) into S phase of the cell cycle. CDK4-cyclin D complexes then persist through the latter phases of the cell cycle, although little is known about their potential roles. We have developed small molecule inhibitors that are highly selective for CDK4 and have used these to define a role for CDK4-cyclin D in G(2) phase. The addition of the CDK4 inhibitor or small interfering RNA knockdown of cyclin D3, the cyclin D partner, delayed progression through G(2) phase and mitosis. The G(2) phase delay was independent of ATM/ATR and p38 MAPK but associated with elevated Wee1. The mitotic delay was because of failure of chromosomes to migrate to the metaphase plate. However, cells eventually exited mitosis, with a resultant increase in cells with multiple or micronuclei. Inhibiting CDK4 delayed the expression of the chromosomal passenger proteins survivin and borealin, although this was unlikely to account for the mitotic phenotype. These data provide evidence for a novel function for CDK4-cyclin D3 activity in S and G(2) phase that is critical for G(2)/M progression and the fidelity of mitosis.

Mesostigmatid mites (Acari : Mesostigmata) on rainforest tree trunks: Arboreal specialists, but substrate generalists?

Predatory mites (Acari: Mesostigmata) on tree trunks without significant epiphytic growth in a subtropical rainforest in Eastern Australia were assessed for habitat specificity (i.e. whether they are tree trunk specialists or occupying other habitats) and the influence of host tree and bark structure on their abundance, species richness and species composition. The trunks of nine tree species from eight plant families representing smooth, intermediate and rough bark textures were sampled using a knockdown insecticide spray. In total, 12 species or morphospecies of Mesostigmata (excluding Uropodina sensu stricto) were collected, most of which are undescribed. Comparison with collections from other habitats indicates that epicorticolous Mesostigmata are mainly represented by suspended soil dwellers (six species), secondarily by generalists (four species) and a bark specialist (one species). A typical ground-dwelling species was also found but was represented only by a single individual. In terms of abundance, 50.5% of individuals were suspended soil dwellers, 40.7% bark specialists, and 8.3% generalists. Host species and bark roughness had no significant effect on abundance or species richness. Furthermore, there was no clear effect on species composition. The distribution of the most frequently encountered species suggests that most mesostigmatid mites living on bark use many or most rainforest tree species, independent of bark roughness. These findings support the hypothesis that some epicorticolous Mesostigmata use tree trunks as 'highways' for dispersing between habitat patches, while others use it as a permanent habitat.

Mutant huntingtin inhibits clathrin-independent endocytosis and causes accumulation of cholesterol in vitro and in vivo.

We show that the mutant Huntington's disease (HD) protein (mhtt) specifically inhibits endocytosis in primary striatal neurons. Unexpectedly, mhtt does not inhibit clathrin-dependent endocytosis as was anticipated based on known interacting partners. Instead, inhibition occurs through a non-clathrin, caveolar-related pathway. Expression of mhtt inhibited internalization of BODIPY-lactosylceramide (LacCer), which is internalized by a caveolar-related mechanism. In contrast, endocytosis of Alexa Fluor 594-transferrin (Tfn) and epidermal growth factor, internalized through clathrin pathway, was unaffected by mhtt expression. Caveolin-1 (cav1), the major structural protein of caveolae binds cholesterol and is responsible for its trafficking inside cells. Mhtt interacts with cav-1 and caused a striking accumulation of intracellular cholesterol. Cholesterol accumulated in cultured neurons expressing mhtt in vitro and in brains of mhtt-expressing animals in vivo, and was observed after induction of mhtt expression in PC-12 cell lines. The accumulation occurred only when mhtt and cav1 were simultaneously expressed in cells. Knockdown of cav1 in mhtt-expressing neurons blocked cholesterol accumulation and restored LacCer endocytosis. Thus, mhtt and cav1 functionally interact to cause both cellular defects. These data provide the first direct link between mhtt and caveolar-related endocytosis and also suggest a possible mechanism for HD neurotoxicity where cholesterol homeostasis is perturbed.

Comorbidity and genotype modify receptor expression in human alcoholics

Chronic alcohol misuse leads to both widespread and localized damage in human cerebral cortex. The latter, as neuronal loss, is marked in superior frontal cortex (SFC) but milder in primary motor cortex (PMC) and elsewhere. Quantitative morphometry by Harper et al showed that neuronal loss is greater in alcoholics with comorbidity (Wernicke Korsakoff syndrome, liver cirrhosis). Previous work revealed a paradox: the marked differences in GABAA receptor density, pharmacology, and expression between alcoholics without cormorbidity and controls are muted or absent in cirrhotic alcoholics. This concurs with work by the Butterworth group on hepatic encephalopathy cases — most of whom had an alcoholic ætiology — who show only minor differences from controls. Glutamate receptor differences are muted in many autopsy studies, though we have evidence that NMDA site pharmacology may vary in cirrhotic alcoholics. Here we used Real-Time PCR normalized to GAPDH deltaCT to quantify NMDA NR1, NR2A and NR2B subunit expression in SFC and PMC samples obtained at autopsy from alcoholics with and without comorbid cirrhosis and matched controls. Overall subunit transcript expression was signifi cantly lower in alcoholic cirrhotics than in either of the other groups (F2,42 = 12.942, P < 0.001). The effect was most marked for the NR1 subunit; males differed from females, particularly in SFC. The data suggest that if excitotoxicity mediates neuronal loss in SFC, it may be implemented differently: passively in uncomplicated alcoholics, by altered GABAergic transmission; actively in cirrhotic alcoholics, by altered glutamatergic transmission. We also subdivided cases on a panel of genetic markers. Different genotypes interacted with NMDA and GABAA pharmacology and expression. Cirrhotic and uncomplicated alcoholics may differ pathogenically because of inherent characteristics in addition to possible neurotoxic sequelæ to the liver damage.

Isoform specific changes in calcium transporters in colon and breast cancer cell lines

Calcium transporters play vital roles in the transport of calcium ions across cells of the mammary gland and the intestine. One such transporter is the plasma membrane Ca2+-ATPase (PMCA), of which there are 4 different genes (PMCA1-4). In these studies we investigated the hypothesis that the expression of PMCA is altered in HT-29 colon cancer cells during sodium butyrate and post-confluence mediated differentiation. We also investigated if PMCA expression is altered in breast cancer cell lines in an isofrom specific manner. Our results indicate isoform specific changes in PMCA mRNA and protein levels in HT-29 cells during differentiation, using real time RT-PCR and western blotting, respectively. We also observed pronounced alterations in the mRNA levels of the PMCA isoform linked to lactation (PMCA2) in a bank of breast cancer cell lines compared to normal cell lines. Changes in other isoforms were less pronounced. To further study the role of specific calcium transporters we have optimised conditions for the reverse transfection of MCF-7 breast cancer cells using NeoFX (Ambion). Using real time RT-PCR we have confirmed gene knockdown for specific isoforms and have studied the time course of knockdown over 96 hours. We see approximately 68 % inhibition at 24 hours increasing to 84 % 96 hours post-reverse transfection. Our studies suggest that the expression of specific calcium transporter isoforms can be significantly altered in cancer cell lines and that isoform specific inhibition of calcium transporters is possible using reverse transfection of siRNA

Interactions between serotonergic genotype and amino acid transmitter receptor expression in human alcoholics

Serotonin can modulate the activity of neural reward pathways that are strongly implicated in mediating the effects of chronic alcohol misuse, and its treatment, in human subjects. In previous work and as discussed elsewhere at this meeting, we and others have found consistent differences in the parameters of GABA and glutamate receptors, and the expression of their component subunit transcripts and proteins, in areas of the alcoholic brain that are altered by alcoholism. We did not fi nd clear changes in GABA and glutamate transport function in such samples, but a series of microarray analyses showed consistent upregulation of the presynaptic GABA/betaine transporter SLC6A12. Microarray studies showed no signifi cant differences in the expression of transcripts associated with 5HT transmission; however, only a small number of such elements were present on the arrays. Here we partitioned GABAA and NMDA pharmacology, and subunit mRNA and protein expression, measured in samples of frontal and motor cortex obtained at autopsy from alcoholics without comorbid disease, alcoholics with liver cirrhosis, and controls, according to 5HTTLPR (SLC6A4) and 5HT1B (HTR1B) polymorphisms. We found no effect of these genotypes on the expression of GABAA receptor gene products, but there was a signifi cant mRNA Transcript X Area X Group X 5HTTLPR Interaction with NMDA subunit isoform expression measured by Real Time PCR with GAPDH normalization. Further analysis showed the effect to be selective for alcoholics with cirrhosis, to be most marked in the pathologically vulnerable frontal cortex, and to vary with subunit transcript (F2,76 = 6.545, P = 0.002). NR1 expression was most affected, followed by NR2A, with NR2B expression least altered. Pilot data suggest 5HT1B genotype may also modulate NMDA subunit expression. Interactions between amino acid and serotonin transmission may infl uence susceptibility to alcohol dependence or pathogenesis

S100P dissociates myosin IIA filaments and focal adhesion sites to reduce cell adhesion and enhance cell migration

S100 proteins promote cancer cell migration and metastasis. To investigate their roles in the process of migration we have constructed inducible systems for S100P in rat mammary and human HeLa cells that show a linear relationship between its intracellular levels and cell migration. S100P, like S100A4, differentially interacts with the isoforms of nonmuscle myosin II (NMIIA, K(d) = 0.5 µm; IIB, K(d) = 8 µm; IIC, K(d) = 1.0 µm). Accordingly, S100P dissociates NMIIA and IIC filaments but not IIB in vitro. NMIIA knockdown increases migration in non-induced cells and there is no further increase upon induction of S100P, whereas NMIIB knockdown reduces cell migration whether or not S100P is induced. NMIIC knockdown does not affect S100P-enhanced cell migration. Further study shows that NMIIA physically interacts with S100P in living cells. In the cytoplasm, S100P occurs in discrete nodules along NMIIA-containing filaments. Induction of S100P causes more peripheral distribution of NMIIA filaments. This change is paralleled by a significant drop in vinculin-containing, actin-terminating focal adhesion sites (FAS) per cell. The induction of S100P, consequently, causes significant reduction in cellular adhesion. Addition of a focal adhesion kinase (FAK) inhibitor reduces disassembly of FAS and thereby suppresses S100P-enhanced cell migration. In conclusion, this work has demonstrated a mechanism whereby the S100P-induced dissociation of NMIIA filaments leads to a weakening of FAS, reduced cell adhesion, and enhanced cell migration, the first major step in the metastatic cascade.

REST mediates resolution of HIF-dependent gene expression in prolonged hypoxia

The hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) is a key regulator of the cellular response to hypoxia which promotes oxygen delivery and metabolic adaptation to oxygen deprivation. However, the degree and duration of HIF-1α expression in hypoxia must be carefully balanced within cells in order to avoid unwanted side effects associated with excessive activity. The expression of HIF-1α mRNA is suppressed in prolonged hypoxia, suggesting that the control of HIF1A gene transcription is tightly regulated by negative feedback mechanisms. Little is known about the resolution of the HIF-1α protein response and the suppression of HIF-1α mRNA in prolonged hypoxia. Here, we demonstrate that the Repressor Element 1-Silencing Transcription factor (REST) binds to the HIF-1α promoter in a hypoxia-dependent manner. Knockdown of REST using RNAi increases the expression of HIF-1α mRNA, protein and transcriptional activity. Furthermore REST knockdown increases glucose consumption and lactate production in a HIF-1α- (but not HIF-2α-) dependent manner. Finally, REST promotes the resolution of HIF-1α protein expression in prolonged hypoxia. In conclusion, we hypothesize that REST represses transcription of HIF-1α in prolonged hypoxia, thus contributing to the resolution of the HIF-1α response.

Characterization of tissue transglutaminase 2 in macrophage function

Programmed cell death, apoptosis, is a highly regulated process that removes damaged or unwanted cells in vivo and has significant immunological implications. Defective clearance of apoptotic cells by macrophages (professional phagocytes) is known to result in chronic inflammatory and autoimmune disease. Tissue transglutaminase 2 (TG2) is a Ca2+-dependent protein cross linking enzyme known to play an important role in a number of cell functions. Up-regulation of TG2 is thought to be involved in monocyte to macrophage differentiation and defective clearance of apoptotic cells by TG2 null mice has been described though in this context the role of TG2 is yet to be fully elucidated. Cell surface-associated TG2 is now recognized as being important in regulating cell adhesion and migration, via its association with cell surface receptors such as syndecan-4, ß1 and ß3 integrin, but its extracellular role in the clearance of apoptotic cells is still not fully explored. Our work aims to characterize the role of TG2 and its partners (e.g. syndecan-4 and ß3 integrin) in macrophage function within the framework of apoptotic cell clearance. Both THP-1 cell-derived macrophage-like cells and primary human macrophages were analyzed for the expression and function of TG2. Macrophage-apoptotic cell interaction studies in the presence of TG2 inhibitors (both cell permeable and impermeable, irreversible and active site directed) resulted in significant inhibition of interaction indicating a possible role for TG2 in apoptotic cell clearance. Macrophage cell surface TG2 and, in particular, its cell surface crosslinking activity was found to be crucial in dictating apoptotic cell clearance. Our further studies demonstrate syndecan-4 association with TG2 and imply possible cooperation of these proteins in apoptotic cell clearance. Knockdown studies of syndecan-4 reveal its importance in apoptotic cell clearance. Our current findings suggest that TG2 has a crucial but yet to be fully defined role in apoptotic cell clearance which seems to involve protein cross linking and interaction with other cell surface receptors.