Resistance to malathion and lambda-cyhalothrin in Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae)

La mosca mediterránea de la fruta, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann, 1824) (Diptera: Tephritidae), es una de las plagas de mayor incidencia económica en cítricos y otros frutales a nivel mundial. En España las medidas de control de esta plaga en cítricos, desde mediados de los 90 hasta 2009, se basaron principalmente en el monitoreo de las poblaciones y en la aplicación de tratamientos aéreos y terrestres con malatión cebo. Sin embargo, desde la retirada en la Unión Europea en 2009 de los productos fitosanitarios que contienen malatión, los insecticidas más utilizados para el control de esta plaga han sido lambda-cihalotrina y spinosad. En 2004-2005 se detectaron poblaciones españolas de C. capitata resistentes a malatión. Esta resistencia se ha asociado a una mutación (G328A) en la acetilcolinesterasa (AChE), a una duplicación del gen de la AChE (Ccace2) (una de las copias lleva la mutación G328A) y a resistencia metabólica mediada por esterasas (posiblemente aliesterasas). Sin embargo, cuando se secuenció la aliesterasa CcE7 en individuos de una línea resistente a malatión, no se encontró ninguna de las mutaciones (G137D y/o W251L/S/G) asociadas a resistencia en otras especies, si bien se encontraron otras mutaciones al compararlos con individuos de una línea susceptible. Asimismo, mediante la selección en laboratorio de una línea resistente a malatión (W-4Km) con lambda-cihalotrina, se ha podido obtener una línea resistente a lambda-cihalotrina (W-1K). Finalmente, se ha demostrado la capacidad de esta especie para desarrollar resistencia a spinosad mediante selección en laboratorio. Los múltiples mecanismos de resistencia identificados evidencian el potencial de esta especie para desarrollar resistencia a insecticidas con diferentes modos de acción. Los objetivos de esta tesis doctoral son: 1) evaluar la susceptibilidad de poblaciones españolas de campo de C. capitata a lambda-cihalotrina y dilucidar los mecanismos de resistencia en la línea W-1Kλ; 2) comparar la herencia, el coste biológico y la estabilidad de la resistencia a malatión mediada por la mutación G328A y la duplicación del gen Ccace2 (una de las copias lleva la mutación G328A); y 3) investigar el papel de las mutaciones identificadas en la aliesterasa CcαE7 en la resistencia a malatión. Estos estudios son de utilidad para el desarrollo de estrategias de manejo de la resistencia que puedan prevenir o retrasar la aparición de resistencia y aumentar la sostenibilidad de los insecticidas disponibles para el control de esta plaga. Nuestros resultados indican que las poblaciones españolas de C. capitata analizadas han desarrollado resistencia a lambda-cihalotrina. Los valores de CL50 estimados para las poblaciones recogidas en la Comunidad Valenciana, Cataluña y Andalucía oscilaron entre 129 ppm y 287 ppm, igualando o sobrepasando la concentración recomendada para los tratamientos de campo (125 ppm). Estos resultados contrastan con los obtenidos con tres poblaciones de campo recogidas en Túnez, cuya susceptibilidad fue similar a la de la línea control (C). La línea resistente a lambda-cihalotrina W-1K se continuó seleccionando en el laboratorio alcanzándose unos niveles de resistencia de 205 veces con respecto a la línea C, siendo su CL50 (4224 ppm) más de 30 veces superior a la concentración recomendada para los tratamientos de campo. Esta línea resistente mostró altos niveles de resistencia cruzada a deltametrina (150 veces) y a etofenprox (240 veces), lo que sugiere que el desarrollo de resistencia a lambda-cihalotrina podría comprometer la eficacia de otros piretroides para el control de esta plaga. Hemos demostrado que la resistencia de la línea W-1K a lambda-cihalotrina fue casi completamente suprimida por el sinergista PBO, lo que indica que las enzimas P450 desempeñan un papel muy importante en la resistencia a este insecticida. Sin embargo, tanto las moscas de la línea susceptible C como las de la línea resistente W-1K perdieron inmediatamente la capacidad de caminar (efecto “knock-down”) al ser tratadas tópicamente con lambda-cihalotrina, lo que sugiere que la resistencia no está mediada por alteraciones en la molécula diana (resistencia tipo “kdr”). La resistencia metabólica mediada por P450 fue analizada comparando la expresión de 53 genes CYP (codifican enzimas P450) de las familias CYP4, CYP6, CYP9 y CYP12 en adultos de la línea resistente W-1K y de la línea susceptible C. Nuestros resultados muestran que el gen CYP6A51 (número de acceso GenBank XM_004534804) fue sobreexpresado (13-18 veces) en la línea W-1K. Por otra parte, la expresión del gen CYP6A51 fue inducida tanto en adultos de la línea W-1K como de la línea C al ser tratados con lambda-cihalotrina. Sin embargo, no se obtuvieron diferencias significativas entre la línea susceptible C y la línea resistente W-1K al comparar la cantidad de P450 y la actividad NADPH-citocromo c reductasa presente en fracciones microsomales obtenidas a partir de abdómenes. Asimismo, no hemos podido correlacionar el metabolismo de deltametrina, estimado in vitro mediante la incubación de este insecticida con fracciones microsomales, con el nivel de resistencia a este piretroide observado en los bioensayos con la línea W-1K. Por otro lado, no se encontró ninguna alteración en la región promotora 5'UTR del gen CYP6A51 (-500 pb desde el inicio de la traducción) que pudiera explicar su sobreexpresión en la línea W-1K. Los datos obtenidos sugieren que la resistencia a lambda-cihalotrina en la línea W-1K está mediada por P450 y que la sobreexpresión de CYP6A51 puede desempeñar un papel importante, aunque se necesitan más evidencias para establecer una asociación directa de la resistencia con este gen. Hemos estudiado la herencia, el coste biológico y la estabilidad de la resistencia a malatión mediada por la mutación G328A y la duplicación del gen Ccace2 (una de las copias lleva la mutación G328A). La línea susceptible C, donde no se encuentra la mutación G328A (genotipo S/S), se cruzó con dos isolíneas establecidas para representar genotipos únicos correspondientes a los dos mecanismos de resistencia asociados a la molécula diana: 1) la isolínea 267Y (genotipo R/R) establecida a partir de una pareja que portaba la mutación G328A en homocigosis; 2) la isolínea 306TY (genotipo RS/RS) establecida a partir de una pareja que portaba en homocigosis la duplicación del gen Ccace2. No se realizaron cruces recíprocos, ya que mediante experimentos de hibridación in situ en cromosomas politénicos se pudo comprobar que el locus de la AChE y la duplicación (probablemente en tándem) se localizan en el cromosoma autosómico 2L. La susceptibilidad al malatión de los parentales resistentes (R/R o RS/RS) y susceptibles (S/S), los cruces F1 (S/R, S/RS y R/RS) y los retrocruzamientos indican que la resistencia a malatión es semi-dominante en ambos casos. Sin embargo, nuestros resultados no fueron concluyentes con respecto a la naturaleza monogénica de la resistencia a malatión en estas isolíneas. Por lo tanto, no podemos descartar que otros genes que contribuyan a la resistencia, además de la mutación G328A (isolínea 267Y) y de la duplicación del gen Ccace2 (isolínea 306TY), puedan haber sido seleccionados durante el proceso de selección de 267Y y 306TY. Varios parámetros biológicos fueron evaluados para determinar si estos dos mecanismos de resistencia a malatión suponen un coste biológico para los genotipos resistentes. Individuos con genotipo R/R mostraron un retraso en el tiempo de desarrollo de huevo a pupa, un peso de pupa reducido y una menor longevidad de los adultos, en comparación con los individuos con genotipo S/S. Sin embargo, el peso de pupa de los individuos con genotipo RS/RS fue similar al de los individuos S/S, y su desarrollo de huevo a pupa intermedio entre S/S y R/R. Estas diferencias en el coste biológico pueden estar relacionadas con la reducción de la eficiencia catalítica de la AChE mutada en los individuos R/R, y al efecto compensatorio que la copia no mutada del gen tiene en los individuos RS/RS que portan la duplicación. La estabilidad de la resistencia a malatión mediada por la mutación G328A y la duplicación se analizó mediante el seguimiento de los caracteres de resistencia en la progenie de retrocruzamientos S/R x R/R y S/RS x RS/RS a lo largo de varias generaciones en ausencia de presión de selección con insecticidas. Nuestros resultados muestran que la frecuencia del alelo que porta la mutación G328A disminuyó desde 67,5% en la primera generación del retrocruzamiento S/R x R/R (75% esperado, asumiendo segregación mendeliana y que sólo hay dos alelos: uno mutado y otro no mutado) a 12% después de 10 generaciones. Por el contrario, la frecuencia de la duplicación sólo disminuyó desde 75% en en la primera generación del retrocruzamiento S/RS x RS/RS (75% esperado, asumiendo segregación Mendeliana y que la duplicación segrega como un único alelo) a 50% en el mismo período, lo que indica que la duplicación es más estable que la mutación. Asimismo, se analizó la presencia de la mutación y de la duplicación en poblaciones de campo recogidas en seis localidades en 2004-2007, cuando todavía se usaba el malatión, y se comparó con poblaciones recogidas en los mismos campos en 2010, un año después de la prohibición del malatión en la Unión Europea. La frecuencia media del genotipo susceptible (S/S) aumentó del 55,9% en el período 2004-2007 a 70,8% en 2010, mientras que la frecuencia de los genotipos portadores de la mutación en homocigosis o heterocigosis (R/R y S/R) disminuyó del 30,4 al 9,2%, los que llevan la duplicación en homocigosis o heterocigosis (RS/RS y S/RS) aumentaron levemente desde 12,8 hasta 13,3%, y los que llevan a la vez la mutación y la duplicación (R/RS) también aumentaron del 1 al 6,7%. Estos resultados son consistentes con que la duplicación del gen Ccace2 (con una copia con la mutación G328A y la otra copia no mutada) es más ventajosa que la mutación G328A por si sola, ya que la duplicación mantiene los niveles de resistencia a la vez que limita el coste biológico. Para investigar la asociación entre la resistencia a malatión y las mutaciones encontradas previamente en CcE7, hemos generado isolíneas con mutaciones específicas seleccionadas por su ubicación próxima a la entrada al centro activo de la enzima. La isolínea Sm2 (procedente de una hembra heterocigota para la mutación V96L y un macho homocigoto para el alelo no mutado) mantuvo altos niveles de resistencia a malatión, incluso después de 30 generaciones sin presión de selección. Por el contrario, la isolínea 267Y (compuesta por individuos homocigotos para la mutación L267Y) y la línea 306TY (compuesta por individuos homocigotos para la doble mutación R306T-N307Y) mostraron una reducción significativa en los niveles de resistencia. También hemos encontrado que la resistencia a malatión de la línea Sm2 fue parcialmente revertida por DEF y TPP, y que Sm2 mostró una reducción significativa en la actividad MTB, como se ha descrito en otras especies que muestran resistencia específica a malatión mediada por aliesterases. Además, fue posible asociar la presencia de la mutación V96L en individuos de la línea Sm2 con supervivencia a una concentración discriminante de malatión (5,000 ppm) y con una baja actividad MTB. Estos resultados sugieren una posible relación entre la mutación V96L en la aliesterasa CcE7 y la resistencia a malatión, aunque todavía no se puede concluir que la resistencia es causada por esta mutación, siendo necesarios más estudios para comprobar su contribución a la resistencia. En conclusión, se ha encontrado por primera vez resistencia a lambda-cihalotrina en poblaciones de campo de C. capitata, y nuestros resultados indican que las P450 son el principal mecanismo de resistencia en la línea W-1K. Esta situación se suma al caso previamente descrito de resistencia en campo a malatión asociada a la mutación G328A, a la duplicación del gen Ccace2 (una de las copias lleva la mutación G328A) y a resistencia metabólica mediada por esterasas. Nuestros resultados también indican que la alteración de la molécula diana AChE parece ser responsable de un cierto nivel de resistencia a malatión en C. capitata, que puede ser estimada como aproximadamente 25-40 veces para la mutación G328A y 40-60 veces para la duplicación; mientras que la resistencia mediada por esterasas y que ha sido asociada en este estudio con la mutación V96L en CcE7 puede conferir un efecto multiplicativo (por un factor de 5 a 10) aumentando la resistencia a malatión a 200-400 veces. Por otra parte, hemos demostrado que los insectos resistentes que llevan la duplicación tienen un coste biológico menor y muestran una estabilidad mayor que aquellos con la mutación G328A en ausencia de presión de selección con insecticidas. Esto representa un escenario en el que los genotipos con la duplicación permanecerán en el campo en frecuencias bajas a moderadas, pero podrían ser seleccionados rápidamente si se utilizan malatión u otros insecticidas que muestren resistencia cruzada. Estos resultados tienen importantes implicaciones para los programas de manejo de la resistencia, ya que el repertorio de insecticidas eficaces para el control de C. capitata es cada vez más limitado. Además, la coexistencia de múltiples mecanismos de resistencia en poblaciones de campo ofrece el potencial para desarrollar resistencia frente a otros insecticidas disponibles para el control de esta plaga. Estrategias para de manejo de la resistencia basadas en la alternancia de insecticidas con diferentes modos de acción, y su combinación con otros métodos de control, deben ser implementadas para evitar el desarrollo de resistencia en campo. ABSTRACT The Mediterranean fruit fly (Medfly), Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann, 1824) (Diptera: Tephritidae), is one of the most economically damaging pests of citrus and other fruit crops worldwide. Control measures in citrus crops in Spain from the mid 90's to 2009 were mainly based on field monitoring of population levels and aerial and ground treatments with malathion bait sprays. However, since the withdrawal of phytosanitary products containing malathion in the European Union in 2009, lambda-cyhalothrin and spinosad have become the most widely used insecticides for the control of this pest. Resistance to malathion was found in Spanish field populations of C. capitata in 2004-2005. This resistance has been associated with a mutation G328A in the acetylcholinesterase (AChE), a duplication of the AChE gene (Ccace2) (one of the copies bearing the mutation G328A), and metabolic resistance mediated by esterases (probably aliesterases). However, when the gene of the aliesterase CcE7 was sequenced in individuals from a malathion resistant strain of C. capitata, none of the known G137D and/or W251L/S/G mutations associated to resistance in other species were found, though other mutations were detected when compared with individuals from a susceptible strain. Noteworthy, a lambda-cyhalothrin resistant strain (W-1K) was obtained by selecting a field-derived malathion resistant strain (W-4Km) with lambda-cyhalothrin. Moreover, it has also been demonstrated the capacity of this species to develop resistance to spinosad by laboratory selection. The multiple resistance mechanisms identified highlight the potential of this species to develop resistance to insecticides with different modes of action. The objectives of this PhD Thesis are: 1) to assess the susceptibility of Spanish field populations of C. capitata to lambda-cyhalothrin and to elucidate the resistance mechanisms in the W-1Kλ strain; 2) to compare the inheritance, fitness cost and stability of the malathion resistance mediated by the G328A mutation and the duplication of the Ccace2 gene (with one of the copies bearing the mutation G328A); and 3) to investigate the role of the aliesterase CcαE7 mutations in malathion resistance. All these studies will be of use for devising proactive resistance management strategies that could prevent or delay resistance development and would increase the sustainability of the insecticides available for Medfly control. Our results indicate that Spanish field populations of C. capitata have developed resistance to lambda-cyhalothrin. The LC50 values estimated for populations collected at Comunidad Valenciana, Cataluña and Andalucía ranged from 129 ppm to 287 ppm, equaling or overpassing the recommended concentration for field treatments (125 ppm). These results contrast with those obtained with three different Tunisian field populations, whose susceptibility was similar to that of the control (C) strain. The lambda-cyhalothrin resistant W-1K strain has been further selected to achieve a 205-fold resistance compared to the C strain, being its LC50 (4,224 ppm) more than 30 times higher than the recommended concentration for field applications. This resistant strain showed high levels of cross-resistance to deltamethrin (150-fold) and etofenprox (240-fold), suggesting that the development of resistance to lambda-cyhalothrin may compromise the effectiveness of other pyrethroids for the control of this species. We have shown that the resistance of the W-1K strain to lambda-cyhalothrin was almost completely suppressed by the synergist PBO, indicating that P450 enzymes play a very important role in resistance to this insecticide. However, both susceptible C and resistant W-1K flies were knocked down after topical treatment with lambda-cyhalothrin, suggesting that kdr resistance mediated by alterations of the target site is not playing a major role. Metabolic resistance mediated by P450 was further analyzed by comparing the expression of 53 genes of the families CYP4, CYP6, CYP9 and CYP12 in adults flies from the resistant W-1K and the susceptible C strains. We found that the gene CYP6A51 (GenBank accession number XM_004534804) was overexpressed (13-18-fold) in the W-1K strain. Moreover, the expression of the CYP6A51 gene was induced when adults of the W-1K and C strains were treated with lambda-cyhalothrin. However, no significant differences were obtained between susceptible C and resistant W-1K strains for the quantity of P450 and for the activity of NADPH- cytochrome c reductase measured in microsomal fractions obtained from abdomens. Moreover, we failed to correlate the metabolism of deltamethrin, analyzed in vitro by incubating this insecticide with microsomal fractions, with the resistance level against this pyrethroid observed in bioassays with W-1K. The sequencing of the 5´UTR region of the CYP6A51 gene failed in finding an alteration in the promoter region (-500 bp from translation start site) that could explain overexpression in the W-1K strain. All data obtained suggest that resistance to lambda-cyhalothrin in the W- 1K strain is mediated by P450 and that overexpression of CYP6A51 may play a major role, although further evidences are needed to establish a direct association of resistance with this gene. We have studied the inheritance, fitness cost and stability of the malathion resistance mediated by the G328A mutation and the duplication of the Ccace2 gene (with one of the copies bearing the mutation G328A). The malathion-susceptible C strain where the G328A mutation is not found (S/S genotype) was crossed with two isolines established to represent unique genotypes corresponding to the two target-site resistance mechanisms: 1) the 267Y isoline (genotype R/R) was established from a couple bearing the mutation G328A in homozygosis; and 2) the 306TY isoline (genotype RS/RS) was established from a couple being homozygous for the duplication of the Ccace2 gene. Reciprocal crosses have not been performed, since in situ hybridization on polythene chromosomes showed that the AChE locus and the duplication (most probably in tandem) are placed at the autosomal chromosome 2L. Mortality responses to malathion of resistant isolines (R/R or RS/RS) and susceptible (S/S) genotypes, F1 crosses (S/R, S/RS, and R/RS), and the back-crosses indicated that resistance to malathion is inherited as a semi-dominant trait in both cases. However, our results were not conclusive about the monogenic nature of the resistance to malathion in these isolines. Thus, we can not discard that other genes contributing to resistance, in addition to the mutation G328A (isoline 267Y) and the duplication of the Ccace2 gene (isoline 306TY), may have been selected during the selection process of 267Y and 306TY. Several biological parameters were evaluated to determine if these two malathion resistance mechanisms impose a fitness cost for resistant genotypes. Individuals with genotype R/R have a reduced fitness in terms of developmental time from egg to pupa, pupal weight and adult longevity, when compared to susceptible individuals (genotype S/S). Interestingly, the fitness cost was substantially diminished in individuals with genotype RS/RS. These differences in fitness may be related to the reduction of the catalytic efficiency of mutated AChE in individuals R/R, and the compensatory effect that the non-mutated copy of the gene has on individuals RS/RS bearing the duplication. The stability of malathion reistance associated with the mutation G328A or the duplication was analyzed by following these resistant traits in the progeny of the back-crosses S/RS x RS/RS and S/R x R/R over consecutive generations in the absence of insecticide selection pressure. Our results show that the frequency of the allele bearing the mutation G328A decreased from 67.5% at the first generation of the back-cross S/R x R/R (75% expected, assuming Mendelian segregation and that there are only two alleles: one mutated and the other non-mutated) to 12% after 10 generations. By contrast, the frequency of the duplication only declined from 75% at the first generation of the back-cross S/RS x RS/RS (75% expected, assuming Mendelian segregation and that the duplication segregates as an unique allele) to 50% in the same period, indicating that the duplication is more stable than the mutation. The presence of the mutation and the duplication was analyzed in field populations collected in six localities in 2004-2007, when malathion was still used, and compared to populations collected in the same fields in 2010, one year after the prohibition of malathion in the European Union. The average frequency of the susceptible genotype (S/S) increased from 55.9% in the period 2004-2007 to 70.8% in 2010, whereas the frequency of those genotypes carrying the mutation in homozygosis or heterozygosis (R/R and S/R) declined from 30.4 to 9.2%, those carrying the duplication in homozygosis or heterozygosis (RS/RS and S/RS) increased slightly from 12.8 to 13.3%, and those carrying both the mutation and the duplication (R/RS) also increased from 1 to 6.7%. These results are consistent with the duplication of the Ccace2 gene (with one of the copies bearing the mutation G328A and the other copy non-mutated) being more advantageous than the G328A mutation alone by maintaining resistance while restoring part of the fitness. In order to investigate the association of malathion resistance with mutations previously found in the aliesterase CcE7, we have generated isolines bearing specific mutations selected by their putative location near the upper part of the active site gorge of the enzyme. The isoline Sm2 (originating from a female heterozygous for the mutation V96L and a male homozygous for the non-mutated allele) kept high levels of resistance to malathion, even after 30 generations without selection pressure. On the contrary, the isoline 267Y (composed by individuals homozygous for the mutation L267Y) and the strain 306TY (composed by homozygous for the double mutation R306T-N307Y) showed a significant reduction in the levels of resistance. We have found also that resistance to malathion in the Sm2 isoline was partially reverted by DEF and TPP, and that Sm2 showed a significant reduction in MTB activity, as reported for other species showing malathion-specific resistance mediated by aliesterases. Besides, it was possible to associate the presence of the mutation V96L in individuals from the Sm2 isoline with both survival to a discriminating concentration of malathion (5,000 ppm) and low MTB activity. Our results point out to a possible connection betwen the mutation V96L in the aliesterase CcE7 and resistance to malathion, though we can not yet conclude that the resistance is caused by the mutation, being needed further work to understand its contribution to resistance. In conclusion, resistance to lambda-cyhalothrin has been found for the first time in field populations of C. capitata, and metabolic resistance mediated by P450 appears to be the main resistance mechanism in the resistant strain W-1K. These findings add to the previously reported case of field resistance to malathion, associated to the G328A mutation and the duplication of the Ccace2 gene (with one of the copies bearing the mutation G328A) and to metabolic resistance mediated by esterases. Our results also indicate that altered target site AChE appears to be responsible for a certain level of resistance to malathion in C. capitata, that can be estimated as about 25-40-fold for the mutation G328A and 40-60-fold for the duplication; whereas metabolic resistance mediated by esterases and associated in this study with the mutation V96L in CcE7 may confer a multiplicative effect (by a factor of 5 to10) increasing malathion resistance to 200-400-fold. Moreover, we have shown that resistant insects carrying the duplication have better fitness and exhibit a higher stability than those with the mutation G328A in the absence of insecticide pressure. This represents a scenario where genotypes with the duplication will remain in the field at low to moderate frequencies, but could be rapidly selected if malathion or other insecticides showing cross-resistance are used. These findings have important implications for resistance management programs, as the repertoire of effective insecticides for C. capitata control is becoming very limited. Besides, multiple resistance mechanisms coexisting in field populations provide the potential to develop resistance to other available insecticides for the control of this pest. Appropriate resistance management strategies based on the alternation of insecticides with different modes of action, and their combination with other control methods, must then be implemented to avoid the evolution of resistance in the field.

BMP2-mediated alteration in the developmental pathway of fetal mouse brain cells from neurogenesis to astrocytogenesis

We show that when telencephalic neural progenitors are briefly exposed to bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP2) in culture, their developmental fate is changed from neuronal cells to astrocytic cells. BMP2 significantly reduced the number of cells expressing microtubule-associated protein 2, a neuronal marker, and cells expressing nestin, a marker for undifferentiated neural precursors, but BMP2 increased the number of cells expressing S100-β, an astrocytic marker. In telencephalic neuroepithelial cells, BMP2 up-regulated the expression of negative helix–loop–helix (HLH) factors Id1, Id3, and Hes-5 (where Hes is homologue of hairy and Enhancer of Split) that inhibited the transcriptional activity of neurogenic HLH transcription factors Mash1 and neurogenin. Ectopic expression of either Id1 or Id3 (where Id is inhibitor of differentiation) inhibited neurogenesis of neuroepithelial cells, suggesting an important role for these HLH proteins in the BMP2-mediated changes in the neurogenic fate of these cells. Because gliogenesis in the brain and spinal cord, derived from implanted neural stem cells or induced by injury, is responsible for much of the failure of neuronal regeneration, this work may lead to a therapeutic strategy to minimize this problem.

Human TOP3: a single-copy gene encoding DNA topoisomerase III.

A human cDNA encoding a protein homologous to the Escherichia coli DNA topoisomerase I subfamily of enzymes has been identified through cloning and sequencing. Expressing the cloned human cDNA in yeast (delta)top1 cells lacking endogenous DNA topoisomerase I yielded an activity in cell extracts that specifically reduces the number of supercoils in a highly negatively supercoiled DNA. On the basis of these results, the human gene containing the cDNA sequence has been denoted TOP3, and the protein it encodes has been denoted DNA topoisomerase III. Screening of a panel of human-rodent somatic hybrids and fluorescence in situ hybridization of cloned TOP3 genomic DNA to metaphase chromosomes indicate that human TOP3 is a single-copy gene located at chromosome 17p11.2-12.

Rapid alteration of thalamocortical axon morphology follows peripheral damage in the neonatal rat.

The effect of day of birth (postnatal day 0; P0) infraorbital nerve section on the morphology of individual thalamocortical axons in rat somatosensory cortex was examined on P3. Thalamic fibers were labeled in fixed brains with the carbocyanine dye 1,1'-dioctadecyl-3,3,3',3'-tetramethylindocarbocyanine perchlorate, and individual photo-converted thalamocortical fibers were reconstructed. In normal animals on P3, axon arbor terminal formation within layer IV has commenced and terminal arbor width is comparable to that of a cortical "barrel." After infraorbital nerve section, the average width of thalamocortical terminal arbors is significantly greater than is the average arbor width of normal rats of the same age; however, neither the number of branches per terminal arbor nor total arbor length differs between groups. These observations suggest that the role of the periphery in guiding terminal arbor formation is exerted both very rapidly and at the level of the single thalamic axon. Further, these results indicate a close association between individual axon terminal arbor morphology and pattern formation in the rat somatosensory cortex.

Copy of Gov[erno]r Philips's additional instructions about settling some Palatine families in Nova Scotia: Copy Col. Dunbar's additional instruction about settling some Irish families in Nova Scotia : manuscript, [1730]

Copies of two documents, approved 20 Apr. 1730; instructions to Richard Philips state that a number of Protestant Irish and Palatine families have been granted land in Nova Scotia, to be surveyed by David Dunbar; and instructions to Dunbar to survey and lay out land for the families.

Ash layers, hyaloclastite, and alteration of basaltic glass at DSDP Leg 65 Holes

Three types of tephra deposits were recovered on Leg 65 of the Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) from three drill sites at the mouth of the Gulf of California: (1) a series of white ash layers at Sites 483, 484, and 485; (2) a layer of plagioclase- phyric sideromelane shards at Site 483; and (3) an indurated, cross-bedded hyaloclastite in Hole 483B. The ash layers in (1) are composed of colorless, fresh rhyolitic glass shards with minor dacitic and rare basaltic shards. These are thought to be derived from explosive volcanoes on the Mexican mainland. Most of the shards in (2) are fresh, but some show marginal to complete alteration to palagonite. The composition of the glass is that of a MORB-type tholeiite, low in Fe and moderately high in Ti, and possibly erupted from off-axis seamounts. Basaltic glass shards occurring in silt about 45 meters above the basement at Site 484 A in the Tamayo Fracture Zone show a distinctly alkalic composition similar to that of the single basement basalt specimen drilled at this site. The hyaloclastite in (3) is made up chiefly of angular sideromelane shards altered to smectite and zeolites (mainly phillipsite) and minor admixtures of terrigenous silt. A very high K and Ba content indicates significant uptake of at least these elements from seawater. Nevertheless, the unusual chemical composition of the underlying massive basalt flow is believed to be reflected in that of the hyaloclastite. This is a powerful argument for interpreting the massive basalt as a surface flow rather than an intrusion. Glass alteration is different in the glassy margins of flows than in thicker glassy pillow rinds. Also, it appears to proceed faster in coarse- than fine-grained sediments.

Bulk geochemistry, mass change and alteration intensity of basalts from ODP Leg 187 sites and survey dredges

Shipboard studies during Ocean Drilling Program Leg 187 (Australian Antarctic Discordance, AAD) suggested that there was no discernible coincidence between the interpreted age of rocks recovered and the intensity of alteration observed. Samples from the oldest sites occupied appeared to exhibit the least overall effects of alteration, and the intensity of alteration varied from site to site. Previous investigations of low-temperature alteration in oceanic basement samples have been restricted by the myopic perspective provided by single drill holes or dredge collections. Combining core samples from Leg 187 and dredge samples from the AAD collection at Oregon State University (USA) offers the unique opportunity to investigate mineral and bulk chemical changes attending alteration of basalt over a range of ages from 0 to 28 Ma. Results of this research indicate that there is a general increase in the intensity of alteration as the basalts age and mosve off axis, but that this relationship is somewhat veiled by the dominating control on alteration intensity dictated by variations in permeability.

Supplement number one, light machine operation. The training of women for war production.

"Designed to supplement the series of unit courses for beginners in machine shop practice."--Pref.

Organizational, direct support, and general support maintenance repair parts and special tools list for test stand, automotive generator, alternator, starter, and associated equipment, model GASR-500 : part number 7458-2, 7458-4, NSN 4910-01-041-8161, 4910-00-767-0218.

"May 1987."

The history of the martyrs epitomised : A cloud of witnesses, or, The sufferers mirrour : made up of the swanlike songs, and other choice passages of a great number of martyrs and confessors, to the end of the sixteenth century, in their treatises, speeches, letters, prayers, &c. ... the whole alphabetically disposed /

LC copy bound in one volume.

A geographical sketch of that part of North America, called Oregon: containing an account of the Indian title;--the nature of a right of sovereignty;--the first discoveries;--climate and seasons;--face of the country and mountains--natural divisions, physical appearance and soil of each;--forests and vegetable productions;--rivers, bays; &c.; islands, &c.; animals;--the disposition of the Indians, and the number and situation of their tribes;--together with an essay on the advantages resulting from a settlement of the territory. To which is attached a new map of the country.

Mode of access: Internet.

Modulation of higher-plant NAD(H)-dependent glutamate dehydrogenase activity in transgenic tobacco via alteration of beta subunit levels

Glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH; EC 1.4.1.2-1.4.1.4) catalyses in vitro the reversible amination of 2-oxoglutarate to glutamate. In vascular plants the in vivo direction(s) of the GDH reaction and hence the physiological role(s) of this enzyme remain obscure. A phylogenetic analysis identified two clearly separated groups of higher-plant GDH genes encoding either the alpha- or beta-subunit of the GDH holoenzyme. To help clarify the physiological role(s) of GDH, tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) was transformed with either an antisense or sense copy of a beta-subunit gene, and transgenic plants recovered with between 0.5- and 34-times normal leaf GDH activity. This large modulation of GDH activity (shown to be via alteration of beta-subunit levels) had little effect on leaf ammonium or the leaf free amino acid pool, except that a large increase in GDH activity was associated with a significant decrease in leaf Asp (similar to 51%, P=0.0045). Similarly, plant growth and development were not affected, suggesting that a large modulation of GDH beta-subunit titre does not affect plant viability under the ideal growing conditions employed. Reduction of GDH activity and protein levels in an antisense line was associated with a large increase in transcripts of a beta-subunit gene, suggesting that the reduction in beta-subunit levels might have been due to translational inhibition. In another experiment designed to detect post-translational up-regulation of GDH activity, GDH over-expressing plants were subjected to prolonged dark-stress. GDH activity increased, but this was found to be due more likely to resistance of the GDH protein to stress-induced proteolysis, rather than to post-translational up-regulation.

The cellular and mechanistic study of nisin inhibition of bacillus anthracis spore outgrowth, nisin alteration of infection, and native producer immunity

A critical step during Bacillus anthracis infection is the outgrowth of germinated spores into vegetative bacilli that proliferate and disseminate rapidly within the host. An important challenge exists for developing chemotherapeutic agents that act upon and kill B. anthracis immediately after germination initiation when antibiotic resistance is lost, but prior to the outgrowth into vegetative bacilli, which is accompanied by toxin production. Chemical agents must also function in a manner refractive to the development of antimicrobial resistance. In this thesis we have identified the lantibiotics as a class of chemotherapeutics that are predicted to satisfy these two criteria. The objective of this thesis was to evaluate the efficacy of nisin, a prototypical lantibiotic, in prevention of outgrowth of germinated B. anthracis spores. Like all lantibiotics, nisin is a ribosomally translated peptide that undergoes post-translational modification to form (methyl)lanthionine rings that are critical for antimicrobial activity. Our studies indicate that nisin rapidly inhibits the in vitro outgrowth of germinated B. anthracis Sterne 7702 spores. Although germination initiation was shown to be essential for nisin-dependent antimicrobial activity, nisin did not inhibit or promote germination initiation. Nisin irreversibly killed germinated spores by blocking the establishment of a membrane potential and oxidative metabolism, while not affecting the dissolution of the outer spore structures. The membrane permeability of the spore was increased by nisin, but germinated spores did not undergo full lysis. Nisin was demonstrated to localize to lipid II, which is the penultimate precursor for cell wall biogenesis. This localization suggests two possible independent mechanisms of action, membrane pore formation and inhibition of peptidoglycan synthesis. Structure-activity studies with a truncated form of nisin lacking the two C-terminal (methyl)lanthionine rings and with non-pore forming mutants indicated that membrane disruption is essential for nisin-dependent inhibition of spore outgrowth to prevent membrane potential establishment. Finally, utilizing an in vitro infection model, it was shown that nisin reduced the viability of B. anthracis spores within an infection resulting in increased survival of immune cells while reducing infection-mediated cytokine expression. Fluorescence microscopy indicated that nisin localizes with spores within phagosomes of peritioneal macrophages in germinating conditions. These data demonstrate the effectiveness of nisin, as a model lantibiotic, for preventing spore outgrowth. It is speculated that nisin targeting of lipid II, resulting in membrane perturbations, may be effective at inhibiting the outgrowth of spores prepared from bacteria across a number of species.