ABOVEGROUND AND BELOWGROUND BIOMASS AND CARBON ESTIMATES FOR CLONAL EUCALYPTUS TREES IN SOUTHEAST BRAZIL

Eucalyptus plantations represent a short term and cost efficient alternative for sequestrating carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Despite the known potential of forest plantations of fast growing species to store carbon in the biomass, there are relatively few studies including precise estimates of the amount of carbon in these plantations. In this study it was determined the carbon content in the stems, branches, leaves and roots of a clonal Eucalyptus grandis plantation in the Southeast of Brazil. We developed allometric equations to estimate the total amount of carbon and total biomass, and produced an estimate of the carbon stock in the stand level. Altogether, 23 sample trees were selected for aboveground biomass assessment. The roots of 9 of the 23 sampled trees were partially excavated to assess the belowground biomass at a singletree level. Two models with DBH, H and DBH2H were tested. The average relative share of carbon content in the stem, branch, leaf and root compartments was 44.6%, 43.0%, 46.1% and 37.8%, respectively, which is smaller than the generic value commonly used (50%). The best-fit allometric equations to estimate the total amount of carbon and total biomass had DBH2H as independent variable. The root-to-shoot ratio was relatively stable (C.V. = 27.5%) probably because the sub-sample was composed of clones. Total stand carbon stock in the Eucalyptus plantation was estimated to be 73.38 MgC ha-1, which is within the carbon stock range for Eucalyptus plantations.

ALLOMETRIC MODELS FOR ESTIMATING ABOVEGROUND BIOMASS AND BIOMASS ALLOCATION OF CAPIXINGUI TREES (Croton floribundus Spreng.) IN AN AGRISILVICULTURAL SYSTEM

ABSTRACT The objective of this study was to select allometric models to estimate total and pooled aboveground biomass of 4.5-year-old capixingui trees established in an agrisilvicultural system. Aboveground biomass distribution of capixingui was also evaluated. Single- (diameter at breast height [DBH] or crown diameter or stem diameter as the independent variable) and double-entry (DBH or crown diameter or stem diameter and total height as independent variables) models were studied. The estimated total biomass was 17.3 t.ha-1, corresponding to 86.6 kg per tree. All models showed a good fit to the data (R2ad > 0.85) for bole, branches, and total biomass. DBH-based models presented the best residual distribution. Model lnW = b0 + b1* lnDBH can be recommended for aboveground biomass estimation. Lower coefficients were obtained for leaves (R2ad > 82%). Biomass distribution followed the order: bole>branches>leaves. Bole biomass percentage decreased with increasing DBH of the trees, whereas branch biomass increased.

BIOMASS SUPPLY CHAIN ANALYSIS WITH DENSIFIED WASTE

ABSTRACT The possibility to vary the energy matrix, thus reducing the dependency on fossil fuels, has amplified the acceptance of biomass as an alternative fuel. Despite being a cheap and renewable option and the fact that Brazil is a major producer of waste from agriculture and forestry activities, the use of these materials has barriers due to its low density and low energetic efficiency, which can raise the costs of its utilization. Biomass densification has drawn attention due to its advantage in comparison to in natura biomass due to its better physical and combustion characteristics. The objective of this paper is to evaluate the impact of biomass densification in distribution and transport costs. To reach this objective, a mathematical model was used to represent decisions at a supply chain that coordinates the purchase and sale of forestry and wood waste. The model can evaluate the options to deliver biomass through the supply chain combining demand meeting and low cost. Results point to the possibility of an economy of 60% in transport cost and a reduction of 63% in the required quantity of trucks when densified waste is used. However, costs related to the densifying process lead to an increase of total supply costs of at least 37,8% in comparison to in natura waste. Summing up, the viability of biomass briquettes industry requires a cheaper densification process.

Removal of organic matter and nutrients from slaughterhouse wastewater by using Eichhornia crassipes and evaluation of the generated biomass composting

The objective of this research was to evaluate the performance of the aquatic macrophyte Eichhornia crassipes applied in situ in a slaughter house treatment system, located in the west of the Paraná state, Brazil, regarding the nutrients removal and organic matter. Moreover, it aimed to obtain data from the production, management and composting practices of the biomass generated in the system. During 11 months of macrophytes development, physic and chemical parameters were monitored and plant density was controlled by periodical removal of excess biomass, which was weekly monitored and it is expressed in kg of aquatic plant per m² covered area. The degradation of the macrophytes removed from the treatment system was evaluated at the pilot scale in eight composting piles of 0.60 m³ that underwent four different treatments and two repetitions: T1 - water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes); T2 - water hyacinth and swine excrement (7:1), T3 - water hyacinth, swine excrement and earth (7:1:0,67), and T4 - water hyacinth, swine excrement and cellulosic gut (7:1:0,67), for a period of 90 days. The results indicated maximum removal efficiencies of 77.2% for COD; 77.8% for BOD, 87.9% for total nitrogen, 47.5% for ammonia nitrogen and 38.9% for total phosphorus for a five-day retention time. For biomass stabilization by composting, considering the C:N ratio as an indicator of compost maturity, it was observed that treatment T4 resulted in the shortest stabilization period (60 days). No difference was verified in the biostabilization rates at 5% level by the F test.

Combustion properties of biomass residues rich in phosphorus

Tillgången på traditionella biobränslen är begränsad och därför behöver man ta fram nya, tidigare outnyttjade biobränslen för att möta de uppställda CO2 emissionsmålen av EU och det ständigt ökande energibehovet. Under de senare åren har intresset riktats mot termisk energiutvinning ur olika restfraktioner och avfall. Vid produktion av fordonsbränsle ur biomassa är den fasta restprodukten ofta den största procesströmmen i produktionsanläggningen. En riktig hantering av restprodukterna skulle göra produktionen mera lönsam och mer ekologiskt hållbar. Ett alternativ är att genom förbränning producera elektricitet och/eller värme eftersom dessa restprodukter anses som CO2-neutrala. Målsättningen med den här avhandlingen var att studera förbränningsegenskaperna hos några fasta restprodukter som uppstår vid framställning av förnybara fordonsbränslen. De fyra undersökta materialen är rapskaka, palmkärnskaka, torkad drank och stabiliserat rötslam. I studien används ett stort urval av undersökningsmetoder, från laboratorieskala till fullskalig förbränning, för att identifiera de huvudsakliga utmaningarna förknippade med förbränning av restprodukterna i pannor med fluidiserad bäddteknik. Med hjälp av detaljerad bränslekarakterisering kunde restprodukterna konstateras vara en värdefull källa för värme- och elproduktion. Den kemiska sammansättningen av restprodukterna varierar stort jämfört med mera traditionellt använda biobränslen. En gemensam faktor för alla de studerade restprodukterna är en hög fosforhalt. På grund av de låga fosforkoncentrationerna i de traditionella biobränslena har grundämnet hittills inte ansetts spela någon större roll i askkemin. Experimenten visade nu att fosfor inte mera kan försummas då man studerar kemin i förbränningsprocesser, då allt flera fosforrika bränslen tränger in på energimarknaden.

Relative reduction in annual soil loss in micro watersheds due to the relief and forest cover

With the intense debate, in Brazil, between landowners and public agencies about the amount of area with forest cover needed in different regions, there is an increase of the need for provision of technical data used as a basis for decision making. One of the criteria to evaluate the effect of forest cover in protecting water resources is the soil loss, which leads to several consequences on the environment, including the silting of the rivers. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the reduction in the soil loss in micro watersheds with different reliefs, size and location of forest cover, in the Corumbataí River watershed, in the state of São Paulo, using the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) in a GIS environment. For this study, 18 watersheds in three degrees of slope were selected, and 20 scenarios for land-use were established, by analyzing the influence of the PPA size, and the size and the location of the Legal Reserve. The results showed that: a) the effect of forest cover in reducing annual soil loss varies depending on the average slope of the watershed; b) the PPA width must be determined taking into account the slope of the watershed; c) the Legal Reserve must be located along the PPA. These provide better results in reducing annual soil loss.

Biomass allocation and water use efficiency in fertigated sweet pepper

The use of productivity information and efficiency of water use is important for the economic analysis of production and irrigation management, and also helps the economy of water use, which is essential to plant life. The objective of this study was to evaluate the biomass allocation, the water use efficiency and water content in fruits of sweet pepper cropped under the influence of irrigation blades and potassium doses. The statistic design was a completely randomized factorial scheme (5 x 2) and four replications, with five irrigation blades (80; 90; 100; 110 and 120% of crop evapotranspiration) and two levels of potassium (80 and 120 kg K2O ha-1 ), applied according to phenological phase, through a system of drip irrigation with self-compensated drippers, installed in a battery of 40 drainage lysimeters cultivated with sweet pepper (Maximos F1), at Federal Rural University of Pernambuco (UFRPE), Recife, state of Pernambuco, Brazil. The dry biomass production of sweet pepper was influenced by fertigation regimes; when it was set the lowest dose, estimates of the efficiency of water use and moisture in the fruit occurred with the use of irrigation depth of 97 and 95% of ETc, respectively.

Yield and quality of elephant grass biomass produced in the cerrados region for bioenergy

The objective of this study was to evaluate the performance of two genotypes of elephant grass, fertilized with and without N, for biomass production for energy use under the edaphoclimatic conditions of the Cerrado. The genotypes Roxo and Paraíso, grown in a field experiment in a Latosol in the Cerrado region were evaluated for biomass yield, nitrogen accumulation, C:N and stem:leaf ratios, fibre, ash and P and K contents and calorific value. The accumulated dry biomass ranged from 30 to 42 Mg ha-1 and showed no response to nitrogen fertilization with the lowest biomass obtained by the genotype Paraíso and the highest by Roxo. The total N accumulation followed the same pattern as for dry matter, ranging from 347 to 539 kg N ha-1. C:N and stem:leaf ratio of the biomass produced did not vary with treatments. The fibre contents were higher in genotype Paraíso and the highest levels of ash in the genotype Roxo. The K content in the biomass was higher in genotype Roxo and P did not vary between genotypes. The calorific value averaged 18 MJ kg-1 of dry matter and did not vary with the levels of N in leaves and stems of the plant. Both genotypes, independent of N fertilization, produced over 30 Mg ha-1 of biomass under Cerrado conditions.

Water distribuition characteristics and soil loss of LEPA Quad-Spray emitter nozzles

The objective of this study was to characterize water application rate, water application pattern width, flow rate, water distribution uniformity and soil loss caused by nozzles of the Low Energy Precision Aplication (LEPA) type Quad-Spray emitter. The study was carried out at the Hydraulic and Irrigation Laboratory of the Department of Engineering at the Federal University of Lavras, in Lavras, state of Minas Gerais - MG, Brazil. Twenty-two (22) LEPA Quad-Spray emitter nozzles were evaluated, with nozzle diameter ranging from 1.59 to 9.92 mm. The experimental design used was entirely randomized, with three replications.Increasing values of nozzle flow rate ranging from 77.44 up to 3,044 L h-1, were obtained with increasing nozzle diameter sizes. Application pattern width ranged from 0.56 up to 3.24m, according to nozzles diameter size. Low values of CDU (maximum of 35.73%) were observed when using the Quad-Spray nozzles. Observed average water application rates covered the range between 68.05 mm h-1 (the lowest value that was obtained with the 2.38mm nozzle) and 258.15 mm h-1 (the highest value that was observed with the 9.92 mm). Average water application rates increased in a simple non-linear function with the increase of nozzle size diameter. However, the weighted average increase in the amount of soil loss by erosion was not related to the increase of weighted average water application values.

Nutrient loss in composting of agroindustrial residues

The management of composting may influence the characteristics of the produced compounds. The experiment used three frequencies of plowing, combined with the conditions: with and without coverage of the composting patio, with and without the use of commercial inoculant, resulting in 12 furrows, installed on the Experimental Center of Agricultural Engineering (NEEA), of the STATE UNIVERSITY OF WEST PARANÁ (UNIOESTE), Campus of Cascavel city - state of Paraná (PR), in Brazil. The waste and quantities used in kg were: corn cob (7.5); hatchery residue (5); floater sludge (31); ash (1); wheat cleaning residue (120); wheat pre-cleaning residue (120); corn peel (7.5); solid fraction of wash trucks used to transport chickens (2); solid fraction of pig manure (1) and coal (5), totaling 300kg of natural matter. The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of plowings, patio coverage and inoculation in losses of N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Na, Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe. The furrows plowed three times a week in the first month showed significant higher losses of N (p<0.05). The coverage of the composting patio influenced significantly the losses of N, K, Mg and Na (p<0.05). The produced compounds had a high agronomic value in relation to macro and micronutrients. It is recommended the use of patio coverage and plowing twice a week in the first month and once a week in the subsequent months for a compound with higher concentrations of nutrients.

Rheological behavior of Chlorella sp. e Scenedesmus sp. cultures in different biomass concentrations

Studies involving the use of microalgae are increasingly intensifying for the potential they present to produce biofuels, because they are a renewable energy source that does not compete directly with food production, and because they enable the obtaining of a fuel with less environmental impact when compared to fossil fuel. In this context, the use of microalgae is directly associated to its capacity to be produced on a large scale and to be extracted from the culture medium. Rheological studies are important for obtaining the information needed in the elaboration of projects and equipment that will be used in various operations existing in systems of production and extraction of algal biomass. In the evaluation of different levels of dry biomass concentration, studies have been conducted of the rheological behavior of cultures of Chlorella sp. BR001 and Scenedesmus sp. BR003. The Power Law model adjusted well to the data of shear stress as a function of strain rate. In all concentrations the cultures showed non-Newtonian behavior. It was observed to Scenedesmus sp. BR003 little effect of biomass concentration on the apparent viscosity and shear stress.

Heat loss in one day old pullets inside a hatchery

After hatching, pullets are transported to brooding area and vaccinated. One day old chicks have not already developed thermoregulation ability; thus, brooding temperature variations may affect pullet quality leading to broiler meat production losses. This research aimed to calculate sensible heat loss in one day old pullets in hatching area and vaccination room. Ten one day old pullets were randomly selected from hatching area of a commercial hatchery. Infrared images were used to calculate bird surface temperature. Exposure areas for the two conditions were quantified, and both air temperature and wind speed was recorded. Total sensible heat loss was calculated as heat loss by radiation plus heat loss by convection. It was found that heat transfer occurs in different ways at different bird body parts. Total heat loss found for hatching baskets was equivalent to 0.81 J s-1 while for vaccination room was 1.16 J s-1. Pullet nutrition is based on energy loss from brooding to farm, and the overall pullet heat loss from hatchery to farm accepted is 13.95 J s-1. Thus, "starter feed" has relevant excess of energy input. These findings indicate that less energy can be used in initial feed, once heat loss is lower than assumed nowadays. Improved knowledge on these conditions may enhance broiler farm feeding strategies and economics during first rearing week.

The impact of evaporative cooling on the thermoregulation and sensible heat loss of sows during farrowing

Pigs are more sensitive to high environmental temperatures explained by the inability of sweating and panting properly when compared to other species of farmed livestock. The evaporative cooling system might favor the thermal comfort of animals during exposure to extreme environmental heat and reduce the harmful effects of heat stress. The purpose of this study was to assess the sensible heat loss and thermoregulation parameters from lactating sows during summer submitted to two different acclimatization systems: natural and evaporative cooling. The experiment was carried out in a commercial farm with 72 lactating sows. The ambient variables (temperature, relative humidity and air velocity) and sows physiological parameters (rectal temperature, surface temperature and respiratory rate) were monitored and then the sensible heat loss at 21days lactation was calculated. The results of rectal temperature did not differ between treatments. However, the evaporative cooling led to a significant reduction in surface temperature and respiratory rate and a significant increase in the sow's sensible heat loss. It was concluded that the use of evaporative cooling system was essential to increase sensible heat loss; thus, it should reduce the negative effects of heat on the sows' thermoregulation during summer.

Modelling head loss along emitting pipes using dimensional analysis

Local head losses must be considered in estimating properly the maximum length of drip irrigation laterals. The aim of this work was to develop a model based on dimensional analysis for calculating head loss along laterals accounting for in-line drippers. Several measurements were performed with 12 models of emitters to obtain the experimental data required for developing and assessing the model. Based on the Camargo & Sentelhas coefficient, the model presented an excellent result in terms of precision and accuracy on estimating head loss. The deviation between estimated and observed values of head loss increased according to the head loss and the maximum deviation reached 0.17 m. The maximum relative error was 33.75% and only 15% of the data set presented relative errors higher than 20%. Neglecting local head losses incurred a higher than estimated maximum lateral length of 19.48% for pressure-compensating drippers and 16.48% for non pressure-compensating drippers.