Interstitial water chemistry at DSDP Leg 57 Holes

Analyses of water samples taken by means of an in-hole sampler generally show good agreement with analyses of samples collected by routine shipboard squeezing techniques. At Sites 438 and 439, a decrease in salinity with depth is related to former freshwater flow from an aquifer that crops out at an anticline on a deep sea terrace between Japan and the top of the trench slope of the Japan Trench. This former subaerial recharge suggests significant late Cenozoic subsidence of the terrace, because it now lies at a water depth of 1500 meters. Samples from the trench slope at Site 440 have extremely high values of alkalinity and ammonia, presumably because of a favorable combination of high sedimentation rate and organic carbon content. Diagenetic conditions on the trench slope favor formation of the Fe-Mg carbonate mineral, ankerite; at Site 440 it first occurs at a depth below the sea floor of only 29 meters in late Pleistocene strata. Undissolved diatoms persist to relatively great depth at the sites of Leg 57 because of a low geothermal gradient caused by subduction. Secondary silica lepispheres first appear at 851 meters at the most landward and warmest site, Site 438, in strata 16 million years old with an ambient temperature of 31 °C.

Impactos en el agua subterránea de un sistema de efluentes para riego : el Sistema Paramillos (Lavalle, Mendoza, Argentina)

En este trabajo se evalúa el impacto de un sistema de aprovechamiento de efluentes domésticos para riego en la calidad del agua subterránea. Los puntos de muestreo seleccionados son parte de un monitoreo a mayor escala del cual sólo se incluyeron aquellos relacionados con el sistema de la planta depuradora Paramillos, ubicada al Norte del aglomerado Mendoza. Esta planta consiste en una laguna de estabilización facultativa. Los resultados, presentados en gráficos, mapas y tablas, se discuten a partir del comportamiento de tres componentes del sistema hídrico: agua superficial (efluente), agua subterránea del nivel superior del acuífero (freática) y agua subterránea del acuífero profundo (confinado/ semiconfinado) y su interacción con el perfil del suelo. Se concluye que el acuífero profundo no es alcanzado por nitratos ni nitritos productos de la degradación biológica de la materia orgánica del efluente, lo que se atribuye a la capa impermeable subyacente. En el nivel superior o freático, el perfil del suelo remueve parte del N total y P total ingresado, entre el 39 y 90%. La remoción de DBO varía entre 30 y 90% y la remoción de E. coli remanente en efluente es total.

Impacto de la urbanización sobre las características hidroquímicas del acuífero libre : comparación estadística con el entorno rural, Coronel Moldes, Argentina

El objetivo consistió en evaluar el impacto que la actividad urbana ocasiona sobre la calidad del agua subterránea del área de Coronel Moldes. Se realizaron consideraciones geoquímicas en relación con el cálculo de línea de base hidroquímica, comparando con muestras extraídas del mismo acuífero en el entorno rural. Los indicadores de contaminación entre las distintas zonas rural y urbana (evaluados con la prueba t para muestras independientes y prueba no paramétrica de Mann- Whitney), indicaron que los valores de las componentes resultaban diferentes. Conductividad eléctrica, bicarbonatos, cloruros y nitratos mostraron en el área urbana valores medios superiores a aquellos del entorno rural que en general corresponden a los valores representativos del fondo natural regional de la calidad del agua subterránea. Se detectó en el área urbana un aumento en la dureza y Cl-/HCO3 - con importante contaminación microbiológica. Para evaluar el fondo regional se ajustaron los datos de los componentes iónicos analizados a las distribuciones teóricas (Normal, Laplace y f1). Se encontró que la distribución empírica presentaba un mejor acercamiento a f1 que a las otras dos, determinándose así como valor característico del fondo natural para cada ion, el estimador del parámetro de localización m* (combinación lineal entre la media y la mediana).

Evaluación de la contaminación de acuíferos producida por actividades de saneamiento y re-uso de efluentes en el norte de la provincia de Mendoza

En la zona norte de la provincia de Mendoza se desarrollan actividades que pueden afectar la calidad natural del agua subterránea: disposición y re-uso de efluentes industriales para riego agrícola, utilización de fertilizantes, saneamiento in-situ, fugas de redes de alcantarillado, etc. En esta región, surcada superficialmente por los ríos Mendoza y Tunuyán, la sedimentación cuaternaria determinó la formación de dos grandes unidades hidrogeológicas: acuíferos libres (sector de conos aluviales), y acuífero freático superior y acuíferos subyacentes confinados y/o semiconfinados. El área de estudio se encuentra ubicada en esta última unidad hidrogeológica donde se ha detectado contaminación de acuíferos por nitratos. El objetivo de este trabajo es identificar el origen de la contaminación, utilizando metodología hidroquímica mediante la evaluación de diversos parámetros físicoquímicos y biológicos, y técnicas isotópicas para corroborar la procedencia del agua subterránea y el origen de los nitratos. Los resultados obtenidos muestran que la presencia de nitratos en los acuíferos semiconfinado y confinado no proviene de la influencia del acuífero libre suprayacente, afectado por el re-uso de efluentes, sino que se relaciona con el ingreso de flujo horizontal de aguas subterráneas contaminadas provenientes del área del Gran Mendoza, debido a las pérdidas en las redes de alcantarillado y obras de saneamiento in situ.

Infiltración y erosión

Esta monografía se enmarca en el manejo de los recursos hídricos en grandes redes de riego. En ella se describe el caso del río Mendoza, en la provincia homónima, el que fuera regulado en el año 2002. Este río nace en la Cordillera de los Andes, y presenta un importante arrastre de sólidos en suspensión, los que actualmente son retenidos en gran medida por el embalse Potrerillos. Las “aguas claras" que se erogan del embalse producen problemas erosivos, los que a su vez estarían ocasionando una mayor infiltración en los canales, y con ello un incremento en la recarga de acuíferos en ciertas zonas, así como problemas derivados del ascenso de la freática en otras. Se citan procesos ocurridos en otros distritos de riego frente a la regulación de los ríos, para concluir que el del río Mendoza es un caso susceptible de sufrir ciertos per-juicios, ya señalados en la Manifestación General de Impacto Ambiental del embalse Potrerillos, los que actualmente se están presentando en la red de riego. A partir de los estudios de sedimentología en el río Mendoza, se hace un análisis técnico de los fenómenos asociados al cambio de las características físicas del agua. Luego se describen los procesos erosivos, de acuerdo con la hidráulica clásica. Se define la Eficiencia de conducción (Ec), la infiltración en canales y su importancia en distintos distritos de riego, para luego mencionar los estudios realizados en el área del río Mendoza. Se analiza el desarrollo espacial que ha tenido el oasis, la escasa programación que tuvo su traza y la antigüedad de la misma. La descripción de los suelos permite concluir acerca de la importancia de su estructura y del papel que juegan las porciones finas, aún en minoría, que integran las distintas clases texturales con respecto a la Ec. Se describen los criterios con que se distribuye el agua en Mendoza, analizándose los caudales distribuidos actualmente, para relacionarlos con los niveles freáticos. Se mencionan además distintas acciones encaradas por la provincia para mitigar los efectos de las aguas claras. El análisis de los métodos utilizados para medir la Ec, permite apreciar el estado de la ciencia al respecto. Un análisis de las ventajas y de las desventajas de los distintos métodos, y de los resultados que con ellos se obtienen, permite concluir que el método de entradas y salidas es el que mejor se adapta en Mendoza, incluyendo además aspectos metodológicos de la medición. También se concluye en que la Ec. está insuficientemente evaluada; las fracciones finas de los suelos en muchos casos gravitan más que la textura frente a la Ec; por ello, se considera que el estudio de la Ec en las distintas áreas de manejo es necesario para entender los procesos de revenición y recarga de acuíferos, y que las pérdidas administrativas pueden gravitar más que la Ec. Se recomienda continuar con los trabajos de evaluación de Ec, al ser necesarios para todas las actividades en la cuenca; se desaconseja en este río el ajuste de modelos de predicción de Ec; las características de los suelos obligan a interpretar y aplicar con criterio la bibliografía internacional, pero aún así no se pueden hacer generalizaciones acerca de de la Ec en Mendoza.

Determinación de parámetros hidráulicos en columnas experimentales de suelos del sudeste de la provincia de Buenos Aires

La cuenca del Río Quequén Grande constituye una región representativa de los sistemas agrícolas pampeanos. El acuífero en esta región es la principal fuente de abastecimiento de agua para todos los usos, lo que pone de manifiesto la importancia de desarrollar los elementos necesarios para el estudio de la movilidad de los contaminantes a través de los suelos hacia la zona saturada. El objetivo del presente trabajo fue obtener parámetros hidráulicos bajo condiciones de saturación en columnas intactas de distintos tipos de suelos de la región, contemplando suelos de uso agrícola y natural. Se estudiaron dos series de suelo: Serie Azul y Serie Semillero Buck, con muestras tomadas en dos sectores próximos a las localidades de Lobería y La Dulce, respectivamente. Las columnas fueron eluidas con una solución acuosa de iones cloruro y se midió el incremento progresivo de conductividad. A partir de las curvas de arribo obtenidas, se ajustó la ecuación de transporte, obteniendo los valores de dispersividad y porosidad. Dichos parámetros no presentaron diferencias significativas según el uso para los suelos de Lobería, de textura franco arcillosa, indicando que la labranza no produciría modificaciones evidentes en el perfil del suelo. En La Dulce, donde los suelos poseen una textura más arenosa, los parámetros variaron según el uso del suelo, presentando una mayor dispersividad y menor porosidad del suelo bajo explotación agrícola extensiva.

Composition of soil samples from injection location

CO2 leakage from subsurface storage sites is one of the main concerns connected with the CCS technology. As CO2 leakages into near surface formations appear to be very unlikely within pilot CCS projects, the aim of this work is to emulate a leakage by injecting CO2 into a near surface aquifer. The two main questions pursued by the injection test are (1) to investigate the impact of CO2 on the hydrogeochemistry of the groundwater as a base for groundwater risk assessment and (2) to develop and apply monitoring methods and monitoring concepts for detecting CO2 leakages in shallow aquifers. The presented injection test is planned within the second half of 2010, as a joint project of the University of Kiel (Germany), the Helmholtz-Centre for Environmental Research (Leipzig, Germany) and the Engineering Company GICON (Dresden, Germany). The test site has been investigated in detail using geophysical methods as well as direct-push soundings, groundwater well installation and soil and groundwater analyses. The present paper presents briefly the geological and hydrogeological conditions at the test site as well as the planned injection test design and monitoring concept.

Mineral quantification of a Jordan Cretaceous outcrop (Section GM3, Ghawr Al Mazar, Ghor al Mazrar)

Cyclic fluctuations in global sea level during epochs of warm greenhouse climate have remained enigmatic, because absence or subordinate presence of polar ice during these periods precludes an explanation by glacio-eustatic forcing. An alternative concept suggests that the water-bearing potential of groundwater aquifers is equal to that of ice caps and that changes in the dynamic balance of aquifer charge versus discharge, as a function of the temperature-related intensity of the hydrological cycle, may have driven eustasy during warm climates. However, this idea has long been neglected for two reasons: 1) the large storage potential of subsurface aquifers was confused with the much smaller capacity of rivers and lakes and 2) empirical data were missing that document past variations in the hydrological cycle in relation to eustasy. In the present study we present the first empirical evidence for changes in precipitation, continental weathering intensity and evaporation that correlate with astronomically (long obliquity) forced sea-level cycles during the warmest period of the Cretaceous (Cenomanian-Turonian). We compare sequence-stratigraphic data with changes in the terrigenous mineral assemblage in a low-latitude marine sedimentary sequence from the equatorial humid belt at the South-Tethyan margin (Levant carbonate platform, Jordan), thereby avoiding uncertainties from land-ocean correlations. Our data indicate covariance between cycles in weathering and sea level: predominantly chemical weathering under wet climate conditions is reflected by dominance of weathering products (clays) in deposits that represent sea-level fall (aquifer charge > discharge). Conversely, preservation of weathering-sensitive minerals (feldspars, epidote and pyroxenes) in transgressive sediments reflects decreased continental weathering due to dryer climate (aquifer discharge > charge). Based on our results we suggest that aquifer-eustasy represents a viable alternative to glacio-eustasy as a driver of cyclic 3rd-order sea-level fluctuations during the middle Cretaceous greenhouse climate, and it may have been a pervasive process throughout Earth history.

Hydrogen and oxygen stable isotope analyses of precipitation sampled at Erlangen (southern Germany) between 2010 and 2013

Shallow groundwater aquifers are often influenced by anthropogenic contaminants or increased nutrient levels. In contrast, deeper aquifers hold potentially pristine paleo-waters that are not influenced by modern recharge. They thus represent important water resources, but their recharge history is often unknown. In this study groundwater from two aquifers in southern Germany were analyzed for their hydrogen and oxygen stable isotope compositions. One sampling campaign targeted the upper aquifer that is actively recharged by modern precipitation, whereas the second campaign sampled the confined, deep Benkersandstein aquifer. The groundwater samples from both aquifers were compared to the local meteoric water line to investigate sources and conditions of groundwater recharge. In addition, the deep groundwater was dated by tritium and radiocarbon analyses. Stable and radiogenic isotope data indicate that the deep-aquifer groundwater was not part of the hydrological water cycle in the recent human history. The results show that the groundwater is older than ~20,000 years and most likely originates from isotopically depleted melt waters of the Pleistocene ice age. Today, the use of this aquifer is strictly regulated to preserve the pristine water. Clear identification of such non-renewable paleo-waters by means of isotope geochemistry will help local water authorities to enact and justify measures for conservation of these valuable resources for future generations in the context of a sustainable water management.

Pore pressure measurements on IODP Exp308 sites

Overpressures measured with pore pressure penetrometers during Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP) Expedition 308 reach 70% and 60% of the hydrostatic effective stress (View the MathML source) in the first 200 meters below sea floor (mbsf) at Sites U1322 and U1324, respectively, in the deepwater Gulf of Mexico, offshore Louisiana. High overpressures are present within low permeability mudstones where there have been multiple, very large, submarine landslides during the Pleistocene. Beneath 200 mbsf at Site U1324, pore pressures drop significantly: there are no submarine landslides in this mixture of mudstone, siltstone, and sandstone. The penetrometer measurements did not reach the in situ pressure at the end of the deployment. We used a soil model to determine that an extrapolation approach based on the inverse of square route of time (View the MathML source) requires much less decay time to achieve a desirable accuracy than an inverse time (1/t) extrapolation. Expedition 308 examined how rapid and asymmetric sedimentation above a permeable aquifer drives lateral fluid flow, extreme pore pressures, and submarine landslides. We interpret that the high overpressures observed are driven by rapid sedimentation of low permeability material from the ancestral Mississippi River. Reduced overpressure at depth at Site U1324 suggests lateral flow (drainage) whereas high overpressure at Site U1322 requires inflow from below: lateral flow in the underlying permeable aquifer provides one mechanism for these observations. High overpressure near the seafloor reduces slope stability and provides a mechanism for the large submarine landslides and low regional gradient (2°) offshore from the Mississippi delta.

Fig. S1. Loci of possible event locations based on differential ts - tp arrival times at the single functioning geophone

Geological storage of CO2 that has been captured at large, point source emitters represents a key potential method for reduction of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. However, this technology will only be viable if it can be guaranteed that injected CO2 will remain trapped in the subsurface for thousands of years or more. A signi?cant issue for storage security is the geomechanical response of the reservoir. Concerns have been raised that geomechanical deformation induced by CO2 injection will create or reactivate fracture networks in the sealing caprocks, providing a pathway for CO2 leakage. In this paper, we examine three large-scale sites where CO2 is injected at rates of ab. 1 megatonne/y or more: Sleipner, Weyburn, and In Salah. We compare and contrast the observed geomechanical behavior of each site, with particular focus on the risks to storage security posed by geomechanical deformation. At Sleipner, the large, high-permeability storage aquifer has experienced little pore pressure increase over 15 y of injection, implying little possibility of geomechanical deformation. At Weyburn, 45 y of oil production has depleted pore pressures before increases associated with CO2 injection. The long history of the ?eld has led to complicated, sometimes nonintuitive geomechanical deformation. At In Salah, injection into the water leg of a gas reservoir has increased pore pressures, leading to uplift and substantial microseismic activity. The differences in the geomechanical responses of these sites emphasize the need for systematic geomechanical appraisal before injection in any potential storage site.

Images of a groundwater flow system in Nicaragua

Conceptualization of groundwater flow systems is necessary for water resources planning. Geophysical, hydrochemical and isotopic characterization methods were used to investigate the groundwater flow system of a multi-layer fractured sedimentary aquifer along the coastline in Southwestern Nicaragua. A geologic survey was performed along the 46 km2 catchment. Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) was applied along a 4.4 km transect parallel to the main river channel to identify fractures and determine aquifer geometry. Additionally, three cross sections in the lower catchment and two in hillslopes of the upper part of the catchment were surveyed using ERT. Stable water isotopes, chloride and silica were analyzed for springs, river, wells and piezometers samples during the dry and wet season of 2012. Indication of moisture recycling was found although the identification of the source areas needs further investigation. The upper-middle catchment area is formed by fractured shale/limestone on top of compact sandstone. The lower catchment area is comprised of an alluvial unit of about 15 m thickness overlaying a fractured shale unit. Two major groundwater flow systems were identified: one deep in the shale unit, recharged in the upper-middle catchment area; and one shallow, flowing in the alluvium unit and recharged locally in the lower catchment area. Recharged precipitation displaces older groundwater along the catchment, in a piston flow mechanism. Geophysical methods in combination with hydrochemical and isotopic tracers provide information over different scales and resolutions, which allow an integrated analysis of groundwater flow systems. This approach provides integrated surface and subsurface information where remoteness, accessibility, and costs prohibit installation of groundwater monitoring networks.

Pore water concentrations and solid phase concentrations of sediment cores from the Ligurian continental slope

In October 1979, a period of heavy rainfall along the French Riviera was followed by the collapse of the Ligurian continental slope adjacent to the airport of Nice, France. A body of slope sediments, which was shortly beforehand affected by construction work south of the airport, was mobilized and traveled hundreds of kilometers downslope into the Var submarine canyon and, eventually, into the deep Ligurian basin. As a direct consequence, the construction was destroyed, seafloor cables were torn, and a small tsunami hit Antibes shortly after the failure. Hypotheses regarding the trigger mechanism include (i) vertical loading by construction of an embankment south of the airport, (ii) failure of a layer of sensitive clay within the slope sequence, and (iii) excess pore fluid pressures from charged aquifers in the underground. Over the previous decades, both the sensitive clay layers and the permeable sand and gravel layers were sampled to detect freshened waters. In 2007, the landslide scar and adjacent slopes were revisited for high-resolution seafloor mapping and systematic sampling. Results from half a dozen gravity and push cores in the shallow slope area reveal a limited zone of freshening (i.e. groundwater influence). A 100-250 m wide zone of the margin shows pore water salinities of 5-50% SW concentration and depletion in Cl, SO4, but Cr enrichment, while cores east or west of the landslide scar show regular SW profiles. Most interestingly, the three cores inside the landslide scar hint towards a complex hydrological system with at least two sources for groundwater. The aquifer system also showed strong freshening after a period of several months without significant precipitation. This freshening implies that charged coarse-grained layers represent a permanent threat to the slope's stability, not just after periods of major rainfall such as in October 1979.

Biogeochemical parameters (oxygen, nitrate, phosphate, TOC and strontium) at three sites from the Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone

The Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone (CCFZ) in the Pacific Ocean is characterized by organic carbon-starved sediments and meter-scale oxygen penetration into the sediment. Furthermore, numerous seamounts occur throughout its deep-sea plain, which may serve as conduits for low-temperature hydrothermal circulation of seawater through the oceanic crust. Recent studies in deep-sea environments of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans have suggested and presented evidence of an exchange of dissolved constituents between the seawater flowing in the basaltic crust and the pore water of the overlying sediments. Through high-resolution pore-water oxygen and nutrient measurements, we examined fluxes and geochemical interactions between the seamount basaltic basement and pore waters of the overlying sediments at three sites located on a radial transect from the foot of Teddy Bare, a small seamount in the CCFZ. At three sites, located 1000, 700 and 400 m away from the foot of the seamount, we found that oxygen concentrations initially decrease with sediment depth but start to increase at depths of 3 and 7 m towards the basaltic basement. NO32- concentrations mirror the oxygen concentration profiles, as they increase with sediment depth but decrease towards the basement. We performed transport reaction modeling and determined at one site the 87Sr/86Sr ratio of the pore water and the bottom water overlying the sediments, which indicated that the 87Sr/86Sr ratio of the pore water at the bottom of the sediment column is similar to the seawater Transport-reaction modeling revealed that (1) the diffusive flux of oxygen from the basaltic basement outpaces the oxygen consumption through organic matter oxidation and nitrification in the basal sediments and (2) the nutrient exchange between the sediment and the underlying basaltic crust occurs at orders-of-magnitude lower rates than between the upper sediment and the overlying bottom water. Our results suggest an upward diffusion of oxygen from seawater circulating within the seamount crust into the overlying basal sediments. The oxygen profiles presented here represent the first of their kind ever measured in the Pacific Ocean, as they indicate an upward flux of molecular oxygen from a basaltic aquifer, something that has so far only been documented - at one other location worldwide - the North Pond site in the Atlantic Ocean. We show that the diffusion of oxygen from the seamount basaltic basement into the overlying pore waters affects the preservation of organic compounds and helps to maintain a completely oxygenated sedimentary column at all 3 sites near the seamount.