The role of mycorrhizas in more sustainable oil palm cultivation

Oil palm is a significant and developing crop in many developing countries. The introduction of oil palm puts pressure on natural resources because it is often planted in cleared-cut land that previously supported other crops or was forested. This has led to environmental concerns which require attention. Hence it is important that new plantations are managed in a sustainable way to reduce the impact of oil palm cultivation on ecosystems whilst maximising yield and productivity to farmers. The application of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) technology is one option that can benefit both agronomic plant health and ecosystems. AMF have the potential to increase conventional agricultural productivity and are crucial for the sustainable functioning of agricultural ecosystems. This paper provides an insight into how AMF application might benefit oil palm cultivation through more sustainable management and the practical use of AMF for oil palm plantations.

Survey on batch-to-batch variation in spray paints: a collaborative study

This study represents the most extensive analysis of batch-to-batch variations in spray paint samples to date. The survey was performed as a collaborative project of the ENFSI (European Network of Forensic Science Institutes) Paint and Glass Working Group (EPG) and involved 11 laboratories. Several studies have already shown that paint samples of similar color but from different manufacturers can usually be differentiated using an appropriate analytical sequence. The discrimination of paints from the same manufacturer and color (batch-to-batch variations) is of great interest and these data are seldom found in the literature. This survey concerns the analysis of batches from different color groups (white, papaya (special shade of orange), red and black) with a wide range of analytical techniques and leads to the following conclusions. Colored batch samples are more likely to be differentiated since their pigment composition is more complex (pigment mixtures, added pigments) and therefore subject to variations. These variations may occur during the paint production but may also occur when checking the paint shade in quality control processes. For these samples, techniques aimed at color/pigment(s) characterization (optical microscopy, microspectrophotometry (MSP), Raman spectroscopy) provide better discrimination than techniques aimed at the organic (binder) or inorganic composition (fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) or elemental analysis (SEM - scanning electron microscopy and XRF - X-ray fluorescence)). White samples contain mainly titanium dioxide as a pigment and the main differentiation is based on the binder composition (Csingle bondH stretches) detected either by FTIR or Raman. The inorganic composition (elemental analysis) also provides some discrimination. Black samples contain mainly carbon black as a pigment and are problematic with most of the spectroscopic techniques. In this case, pyrolysis-GC/MS represents the best technique to detect differences. Globally, Py-GC/MS may show a high potential of discrimination on all samples but the results are highly dependent on the specific instrumental conditions used. Finally, the discrimination of samples when data was interpreted visually as compared to statistically using principal component analysis (PCA) yielded very similar results. PCA increases sensitivity and could perform better on specific samples, but one first has to ensure that all non-informative variation (baseline deviation) is eliminated by applying correct pre-treatments. Statistical treatments can be used on a large data set and, when combined with an expert's opinion, will provide more objective criteria for decision making.

Draft environmental report on Cape Verde

Faced with recurrent drought and famine during five centuries of human occupation, the small and densely populated Cape Verde Islands have a history of severe environmental problems. The arid climate and steep, rocky terrain provide scant resources for traditional subsistance farming under the best conditions, and in years of low rainfall the failure of rainfed crops causes massive food shortages. Agricultural use of steep slopes where rainfall is highest has led to soil erosion, as has removal of the island's vegetation for fuel and livestock. Pressure on the vegetation is particularly severe in dry years. International aid can provide relief from famine, and the introduction of modern agricultural and conservation techniques can improve the land and increase yield, but it is unlikely that Cape Verde can ever be entirely self -sufficient in food. Ultimately, the solution of Cape Verde's economic and environmental problems will probably require the development of productive urban jobs so the population can shift away from the intensive and destructive use of land for subsistance farming. In the meantime, the people of Cape Verde can best be served by instituting fundamental measures to conserve and restore the land so that it can be used to its fullest potential. The primary environmental problems in Cape Verde today are: 1. Soil degradation. Encouraged by brief but heavy rains and steep slopes, soil erosion is made worse by lack of vegetation. Soils are also low in organic matter due to the practice of completely removing crop plants and natural vegetation for food, fuel or livestock feed. 2. Water shortage. Brief and erratic rainfall in combination with rapid runoff makes surface water scarce and difficult to use. Groundwater supplies can be better developed but capabilities are poorly known and the complex nature of the geological substrate makes estimation difficult. Water is the critical limiting factor to the agricultural capability of the islands. 3. Fuel shortage. Demand for fuel is intense and has resulted in the virtual elimination of native vegetation. Fuelwood supplies are becoming more and more scarce and costly. Development of managed fuelwood plantations and alternate energy sources is required. 4. Inappropriate land use. Much of the land now used for raising crops or livestock is too steep or too arid for these purposes, causing erosion and destruction of vegetation. Improving yield in more appropriate areas and encouraging less damaging uses of the remaining marginal lands can help to alleviate this problem.

An experimental test of rainfall as a control agent of Glycaspis brimblecombei Moore (Hemiptera, Psyllidae) on seedlings of Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehn (Myrtaceae)

An experimental test of rainfall as a control agent of Glycaspis brimblecombei Moore (Hemiptera, Psyllidae) on seedlings of Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehn (Myrtaceae). Glycaspis brimblecombei is one the greatest threats to eucalyptus plantations in Brazil. The effects of rainfall to reduce the abundance of lerp of Glycaspis brimblecombei on experimentally infested seedlings of Eucalyptus camaldulensis were assessed. The number of lerps on the adaxial and abaxial surfaces of every leaf of 60 seedlings was recorded, before and after submission to the following treatments: "artificial rain", "leaf wetting" and control. A drastic reduction in lerp abundance per plant was observed after the treatments "leaf wetting" and artificial rain (F = 53.630; p < 0.001), whereas lerp abundance remained roughly constant in the control treatment along the experiment (F = 1.450; p = 0.232). At the end of the experiment, lerp abundance was significantly lower in both the "artificial rain" and "leaf wetting" than in the control treatment. Two days of rainfall simulation were sufficient to decrease more than 50% of the lerp population, with almost 100% of effectiveness after 5 days of experiment. Our results indicate that lerp solubilization and mechanical removal by water are potential tools to the population regulation of G. brimblecombei on E. camaldulensis seedlings.

Biological characteristics of Telenomus alecto and Trichogramma galloi reared on eggs of the sugarcane borer Diatraea flavipennella

Diatraea flavipennella (Box) (Lepidoptera, Crambidae) is one of the most destructive pests in sugarcane plantations in the Northeast Region of Brazil. Developmental characteristics and parasitism potential of the egg parasitoids Telenomus alecto Crawford (Hymenoptera, Scelionidae) and Trichogramma galloi Zucchi (Hymenoptera, Trichogrammatidae) were compared with the aim of selecting a suitable species for biological control of D. flavipennella. Both T. alecto and T. galloi developed well and were readily adapted to D. flavipennella eggs as host. Although, T. galloi presented higher viability, with more adults emerging per host egg and higher sex ratio, the developmental period (egg-adult) was shorter in T. alecto and female longevity was extended. In addition, T. alecto exhibited significant higher levels of parasitism during the first three days after emergence than T. galloi. Thus, both parasitoids studied here offer considerable potential for the control of D. flavipennella in sugarcane.

Carabid beetle assemblages in three environments in the Araucaria humid forest of southern Brazil

Carabid beetle assemblages in three environments in the Araucaria humid forest of southern Brazil. Carabidae is composed mainly by ground-dwelling predator beetles. It is the fourth most diverse group within Coleoptera, but its diversity in the Neotropical region is understudied. Here we describe and analyze the diversity of carabid beetles in a region of subtropical rain forest dominated by Araucaria angustifolia with different landscapes. Three areas were chosen in an environmental integrity gradient: primary forests, secondary forests and old Pinus plantations. Pitfall traps were taken monthly, in a total of 14 samples per area. 1733 adult carabid beetles, belonging to 18 species, were sampled. There were differences in richness and abundance between the sampled areas. The total scores followed the same tendency: primary forests (14 species/747 individuals), secondary forests (13/631) and Pinus forests (10/355). An analysis of similarity shows differences in species composition, for both areas and seasons. Galerita lacordarei was the most abundant species for all samples and seasons. Carabid species show similar responses in accordance with habitat heterogeneity and disturbance. The abundance of Galerita lacordarei was influenced by temperature, for all sampled sites. Environmental changes affect the carabid assemblages and decrease diversity, possibly interfering in local dynamics. Seasonality patterns seem to indicate an increase in individual movement during summer, probably in search of resources. It is suggested that microhabitat patchiness is probably an important factor affecting carabid beetle diversity at small spatial scales.

Produtividade do cacaueiro em função de características do solo: I. características químicas

Avaliaram-se as produtividades em sete anos (1989 a 1995) de 36 talhões de cacaueiros (Theobroma cacao L.) de uma propriedade no município de Itagibá, Bahia. As médias das três maiores (anos mais chuvosos) e das três menores (anos mais secos) produtividades de cada talhão foram consideradas como variáveis principais na análise de trilha. As variáveis explicativas foram as características químicas (pH em H2O e em KCl, carbono orgânico, N-total, Al, Ca, Mg, P, K, Na, Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe, H + Al e P remanescente), em duas profundidades (0-20 e 30-50 cm), de solos com diferentes texturas. Dados de análise de rotina de solo (pH, Ca, Mg, P e K), do ano de 1995 foram correlacionados com valores dessas mesmas variáveis obtidos nos anos de 1988 e de 1991, com a finalidade de verificar se a fertilidade atual refletiria uma condição passada. O K e o P do solo, nutrientes que foram fornecidos pelas adubações, modificaram-se muito ao longo desses sete anos, enquanto o pH, o Ca e o Mg mantiveram-se mais estáveis ao longo do tempo. Cobre foi o nutriente que mais restringiu a produtividade do cacaueiro; Ca, P e N também limitaram a produtividade da cultura, principalmente em anos chuvosos. Os níveis de pH, K e Mg apresentaram-se altos em alguns talhões, tendo efeitos significativos e negativos sobre a produtividade. Em anos mais secos, os talhões menos produtivos estavam sobre solos mais férteis (possivelmente mais jovens), com menor capacidade tampão e com menor teor de matéria orgânica. Independentemente da quantidade de chuva, dentre os talhões com solos argilosos os mais produtivos tinham maior capacidade tampão de P.

Produtividade do cacaueiro em função de características do solo: II. características físico-morfológicas e alguns elementos extraídos pelo ataque sulfúrico

Com base na produtividade em sete anos (1989 a 1995) de 36 talhões produtivos de cacau, cultivados numa propriedade agrícola no sul da Bahia, foram obtidas as médias dos três anos mais e menos produtivos, correspondendo, respectivamente, a anos de maior e menor quantidade de chuvas. Essas produtividades foram relacionadas, por análise de trilha, com as características físico-morfológicas do solo (profundidade do horizonte A; cor, porosidade, densidades aparente e de partícula dos horizontes A e B; textura das camadas de 0-20 e 30-50 cm e presença de cascalho ou pedras até à profundidade de 50 cm) e com os teores totais de elementos (Ti, K, Cu, Fe, Mn e Zn), obtidos pelo ataque sulfúrico, na camada de 30-50 cm de profundidade. Os micronutrientes extraídos pelo ataque sulfúrico foram correlacionados com aqueles extraídos pelo Mehlich-1. Em geral, as características físicas explicaram melhor a produtividade dos anos mais secos, enquanto os teores de elementos extraídos pelo ataque sulfúrico correlacionaram-se melhor com a produtividade dos anos mais chuvosos. Os talhões mais produtivos tinham horizonte A mais profundo, solo mais poroso, com maiores teores de micronutrientes catiônicos e Ti e menor teor de K obtido pelo ataque sulfúrico. Em anos mais secos, os talhões mais produtivos foram aqueles que apresentavam solo com maior teor de argila e menores teores de silte e areia. A presença de cascalho até à profundidade de 50 cm e a cor dos horizontes do solo não se correlacionaram significativamente com a produtividade das plantas. Cobre, Mn e, ou, Zn, extraídos pelo ataque sulfúrico, indicaram solos de maior fertilidade natural em micronutrientes catiônicos para o cacaueiro.

Phytochrome interacting factors 4 and 5 redundantly limit seedling de-etiolation in continuous far-red light.

Phytochromes are red/far-red photosensors that regulate numerous developmental programs in plants. Among them, phytochrome A (phyA) is essential to enable seedling de-etiolation under continuous far-red (FR) light, a condition that mimics the environment under a dense canopy. The ecological relevance of this response is demonstrated by the high mortality rate of phyA mutant plants that germinate in deep vegetational shade. phyA signaling involves direct interaction of the photoreceptor with phytochrome-interacting factors PIF1 and PIF3, members of the bHLH transcription factor family. Here we investigated the involvement of PIF4 and PIF5 in phyA signaling, and found that they redundantly control de-etiolation in FR light. The pif4 pif5 double mutant is hypersensitive to low fluence rates of FR light. This phenotype is dependent on FR light perception by phyA, but does not rely on alterations in the phyA level. Our microarray analysis shows that PIF4 and PIF5 are part of an inhibitory mechanism that represses the expression of some light-responsive genes in the dark, and that they are also needed for full expression of several growth-related genes in the light. Unlike PIF1 and PIF3, PIF4 and PIF5 are not degraded in response to FR light, indicating that they are light-regulated by a different mechanism. Our genetic analysis suggests that this is achieved through sequestration of these PIFs by the closely related bHLH transcription factor HFR1 (long hypocotyl in FR light).

Coffee leaf and stem anatomy under boron deficiency

Boron deficiency in coffee is widely spread in Brazilian plantations, but responses to B fertilizer have been erratic, depending on the year, form and time of application and B source. A better understanding of the effects of B on plant physiology and anatomy is important to establish a rational fertilization program since B translocation within the plant may be affected by plant anatomy. In this experiment, coffee plantlets of two varieties were grown in nutrient solutions with B levels of 0.0 (deficient), 5.0 µM (adequate) and 25.0 µM (high). At the first symptoms of deficiency, leaves were evaluated, the cell walls separated and assessed for B and Ca concentrations. Scanning electron micrographs were taken of cuts of young leaves and branch tips. The response of both coffee varieties to B was similar and toxicity symptoms were not observed. Boron concentrations in the cell walls increased with B solution while Ca concentrations were unaffected. The Ca/B ratio decreased with the increase of B in the nutrient solution. In deficiency of B, vascular tissues were disorganized and xylem walls thinner. B-deficient leaves had fewer and deformed stomata.

Soil carbon and nitrogen in pasture soil reforested with eucalyptus and guachapele

In spite of the normally low content of organic matter found in sandy soils, it is responsible for almost the totality of cation exchange capacity (CEC), water storage and availability of plant nutrients. It is therefore important to evaluate the impact of alternative forest exploitation on the improvement of soil C and N accumulation on these soils. This study compared pure and mixed plantations of Eucalyptus grandis and Pseudosamanea guachapele, a N2-fixing leguminous tree, in relation to their effects on soil C and N stocks. The studied Planosol area had formerly been covered by Panicum maximum pasture for at least ten years without any fertilizer addition. To estimate C and N contents, the soil was sampled (at depths of 0-2.5; 2.5-5.0; 5.0-7.5; 7.5-10.0; 10.0-20.0 and 20.0-40.0 cm), in pure and mixed five-year-old tree plantations, as well as on adjacent pasture. The natural abundance 13C technique was used to estimate the contribution of the soil organic C originated from the trees in the 0-10 cm soil layer. Soil C and N stocks under mixed plantation were 23.83 and 1.74 Mg ha-1, respectively. Under guachapele, eucalyptus and pasture areas C stocks were 14.20, 17.19 and 24.24 Mg ha-1, respectively. For these same treatments, total N contents were 0.83; 0.99 and 1.71 Mg ha-1, respectively. Up to 40 % of the soil organic C in the mixed plantation was estimated to be derived from trees, while in pure eucalyptus and guachapele plantations these same estimates were only 19 and 27 %, respectively. Our results revealed the benefits of intercropped leguminous trees in eucalyptus plantations on soil C and N stocks.

Fracionamento químico e físico do carbono orgânico total em um solo de mata submetido a diferentes usos

A matéria orgânica é um importante indicador da qualidade do solo, pois está relacionada com diversas propriedades químicas, físicas e biológicas, sendo importante o conhecimento do teor de C orgânico total (COT), bem como de suas frações. Com base nisso, realizou-se esta pesquisa objetivando caracterizar e quantificar os estoques de COT e suas frações como indicadores da qualidade de um solo, submetido a diferentes usos: (1) Mata Atlântica, (2) Cacau (Theobroma cacao) e (3) Pastagem (Brachiaria decumbens), em uma microbacia no sul da Bahia. Para cada uso, coletaram-se amostras nas profundidades de 0-10 e 10-20 cm e procedeu-se à caracterização química e física do solo, à determinação do COT e ao seu fracionamento químico e físico. O teor de COT não diferiu entre os diferentes usos do solo nas duas profundidades estudadas. A percentagem de C humificado e nas frações de ácidos fúlvicos e humina foi maior na pastagem, na camada de 0-10 cm. Houve menor percentagem de C não-humificado nos sistemas cacau e pastagem, e maior relação C:N no sistema pastagem na camada de 10-20 cm. O sistema cacau promoveu aumento na quantidade de C orgânico na fração leve na camada de 10-20 cm. A substituição da mata pelo cultivo do cacau no sistema cabruca (sub-bosque) ou pela pastagem não alterou os teores de COT e de suas frações na área estudada.

Formas de adubação e doses de uréia para mudas clonais de cacau cultivadas em substrato

O N é o nutriente mais demandado pelas plantas. Contudo, para produção de mudas enraizadas de cacaueiro em substratos e sob irrigação freqüente não existem estudos de calibração de adubação nitrogenada. Os objetivos deste trabalho foram comparar a eficiência das adubações no substrato e foliar com uréia para mudas clonais de cacau e definir doses recomendáveis e nível crítico foliar de N. O experimento foi instalado em viveiro de produção de mudas do Instituto Biofábrica de Cacau, em Ilhéus, Bahia, em julho de 2006, envolvendo 10 tratamentos (duas formas de adubação, combinadas com cinco doses de uréia), em blocos casualizados, com quatro repetições. A parcela útil constituiu-se de 12 mudas clonais de cacaueiro cultivadas em tubetes, contendo 288 cm³ de substrato (50 % de fibra de coco e 50 % de Plantmax®). O substrato foi corrigido com 3,20 kg m-3 de calcário e adubado com 2,68 kg m-3 de superfosfato simples. Os tratamentos foram aplicados entre o 82º até o 138º dia, com as seguintes doses semanais de N: 0, 20, 40, 60 e 80 mg dm-3 via substrato e 0,0; 2,25; 4,5; 9,0; e 13,5 g L-1 via foliar. Em todos os tratamentos, fez-se a adubação complementar com P, K, S, Zn e B via substrato. Aos 145 dias, as plantas foram colhidas, sendo avaliados: diâmetro da haste principal, altura, área foliar, matéria seca da parte aérea (MSPA), teor de nutrientes na folha diagnóstica e conteúdo de nutrientes na parte aérea. As variáveis biométricas e nutricionais responderam aos tratamentos. A adubação via substrato proporcionou produção máxima superior à adubação foliar, para MSPA, altura e área foliar. As doses recomendáveis de N, calculadas para obtenção de 99 % da produção máxima, variaram de acordo com a variável biométrica de 43 a 76 mg dm-3 para adubação via substrato e de 9,1 a 11,7 g L-1 para adubação foliar. O nível crítico foliar de N, para obtenção de 99 % da produção máxima da MSPA, foi de 23,1 g kg-1.