The contribution of three components of nutrition knowledge to socio-economic differences in food purchasing choices

Objectives: To assess socio-economic differences in three components of nutrition knowledge, i.e. knowledge of (i) the relationship between diet and disease, (ii) the nutrient content of foods and (iii) dietary guideline recommendations; furthermore, to determine if socio-economic differences in nutrition knowledge contribute to inequalities in food purchasing choices. Design: The cross-sectional study considered household food purchasing,nutrition knowledge, socio-economic and demographic information. Household food purchasing choices were summarised by three indices, based on self-reported purchasing of sixteen groceries, nineteen fruits and twenty-one vegetables. Socio-economic position (SEP) was measured by household income and education. Associations between SEP, nutrition knowledge and food purchasing were examined using general linear models adjusted for age, gender, household type and household size. Setting: Brisbane, Australia in 2000. Subjects: Main household food shoppers (n 1003, response rate 66?4 %), located in fifty small areas (Census Collectors Districts). Results: Shoppers in households of low SEP made food purchasing choices that were less consistent with dietary guideline recommendations: they were more likely to purchase grocery foods comparatively higher in salt, sugar and fat, and lower in fibre, and they purchased a narrower range of fruits and vegetables. Those of higher SEP had greater nutrition knowledge and this factor attenuated most associations between SEP and food purchasing choices. Among nutrition knowledge factors, knowledge of the relationship between diet and disease made the greatest and most consistent contribution to explaining socio-economic differences in food purchasing. Conclusions: Addressing inequalities in nutrition knowledge is likely to reduce socio-economic differences in compliance with dietary guidelines. Improving knowledge of the relationship between diet and disease appears to be a particularly relevant focus for health promotion aimed to reduce socio-economic differences in diet and related health inequalities.

A neuronal topography of visual and acoustic fear conditioning within the amygdala

The lateral amygdala (LA) receives information from auditory and visual sensory modalities, and uses this information to encode lasting memories that predict threat. One unresolved question about the amygdala is how multiple memories, derived from different sensory modalities, are organized at the level of neuronal ensembles. We previously showed that fear conditioning using an auditory conditioned stimulus (CS) was spatially allocated to a stable topography of neurons within the dorsolateral amygdala (LAd) (Bergstrom et al, 2011). Here, we asked how fear conditioning using a visual CS is topographically organized within the amygdala. To induce a lasting fear memory trace we paired either an auditory (2 khz, 55 dB, 20 s) or visual (1 Hz, 0.5 s on/0.5 s off, 35 lux, 20 s) CS with a mild foot shock unconditioned stimulus (0.6 mA, 0.5 s). To detect learning-induced plasticity in amygdala neurons, we used immunohistochemistry with an antibody for phosphorylated mitogen-activated protein kinase (pMAPK). Using a principal components analysis-based approach to extract and visualize spatial patterns, we uncovered two unique spatial patterns of activated neurons in the LA that were associated with auditory and visual fear conditioning. The first spatial pattern was specific to auditory cued fear conditioning and consisted of activated neurons topographically organized throughout the LAd and ventrolateral nuclei (LAvl) of the LA. The second spatial pattern overlapped for auditory and visual fear conditioning and was comprised of activated neurons located mainly within the LAvl. Overall, the density of pMAPK labeled cells throughout the LA was greatest in the auditory CS group, even though freezing in response to the visual and auditory CS was equivalent. There were no differences detected in the number of pMAPK activated neurons within the basal amygdala nuclei. Together, these results provide the first basic knowledge about the organizational structure of two different fear engrams within the amygdala and suggest they are dissociable at the level of neuronal ensembles within the LA

High and low fear phenotypes show differences in phosphorylated (p44/42 ERK) MAPK-expressing neurons in the lateral amygdala

Post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a serious medical condition effecting both military and civilian populations. While its etiology remains poorly understood it is characterized by high and prolonged levels of fear responding. One biological unknown is whether individuals expressing high or low conditioned fear memory encode the memory differently and if that difference underlies fear response. In this study we examined cellular mechanisms that underlie high and low conditioned fear behavior by using an advanced intercrossed mouse line (B6D2F1) selected for high and low Pavlovian fear response. A known requirement for consolidation of fear memory, phosphorylated mitogen activated protein kinase (p44/42 (ERK) MAPK (pMAPK)) in the lateral amygdala (LA) is a reliable marker of fear learning-related plasticity. In this study, we asked whether high and low conditioned fear behavior is associated with differential pMAPK expression in the LA and if so, is it due to an increase in neurons expressing pMAPK or increased pMAPK per neuron. To examine this, we quantified pMAPK-expressing neurons in the LA at baseline and following Pavlovian fear conditioning. Results indicate that high fear phenotype mice have more pMAPK-expressing neurons in the LA. This finding suggests that increased endogenous plasticity in the LA may be a component of higher conditioned fear responses and begins to explain at the cellular level how different fear responders encode fear memories. Understanding how high and low fear responders encode fear memory will help identify novel ways in which fear-related illness risk can be better predicted and treated.

Mice behaviorally selected for high Pavlovian fear memory exhibit fear generalization, HPA-axis alterations and increased basal activity in cortico-limbic circuits

Biological factors underlying individual variability in fearfulness and anxiety have important implications for stress-related psychiatric illness including PTSD and major depression. Using an advanced intercross line (AIL) derived from C57BL/6 and DBA/2J mouse strains and behavioral selection over 3 generations, we established two lines exhibiting High or Low fear behavior after fear conditioning. Across the selection generations, the two lines showed clear differences in training and tests for contextual and conditioned fear. Before fear conditioning training, there were no differences between lines in baseline freezing to a novel context. However, after fear conditioning High line mice demonstrated pronounced freezing in a new context suggestive of poor context discrimination. Fear generalization was not restricted to contextual fear. High fear mice froze to a novel acoustic stimulus while freezing in the Low line did not increase over baseline. Enhanced fear learning and generalization are consistent with transgenic and pharmacological disruption of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA-axis) (Brinks, 2009, Thompson, 2004, Kaouane, 2012). To determine whether there were differences in HPA-axis regulation between the lines, morning urine samples were collected to measure basal corticosterone. Levels of secreted corticosterone in the circadian trough were analyzed by corticosterone ELISA. High fear mice were found to have higher basal corticosterone levels than low line animals. Examination of hormonal stress response components by qPCR revealed increased expression of CRH mRNA and decreased mRNA for MR and CRHR1 in hypothalamus of high fear mice. These alterations may contribute to both the behavioral phenotype and higher basal corticosterone in High fear mice. To determine basal brain activity in vivo in High and Low fear mice we used manganese-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MEMRI). Analysis revealed a pattern of basal brain activity made up of amygdala, cortical and hippocampal circuits that was elevated in the High line. Ongoing studies also seek to determine the relative balance of excitatory and inhibitory tone in the amygdala and hippocampus and the neuronal structure of its neurons. While these heterogeneous lines are selected on fear memory expression, HPA-axis alterations and differences in hippocampal activity segregate with the behavioral phenotypes. These differences are detectable in a basal state strongly suggesting these are biological traits underlying the behavioral phenotype (Johnson et al, 2011).

Effects of knowledge, testimonials, and Ad copy on cruise advertising judgments

Tourist individual differences, such as levels of knowledge, are increasingly recognized as influencing how people respond to information. However, little research has examined the role of consumer knowledge on responses to different components of cruise advertising information. Using input from an industry panel combined with insight and measures from the literature, the results of this field experiment show that consumer knowledge interacts with two aspects of advertising—testimonial expertise and advertising copy—to influence purchase intentions towards a cruise. The results offer important implications for researchers and tourism managers regarding how consumer knowledge influences which types of advertising information are most persuasive to consumers. Results also indicate that expert consumers have more favorable attitudes than novice consumers towards cruise advertising.

Single voxel Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopic (1H-MRS) analysis of deep brain structures after traumatic prefrontal brain injury (TBI) in rat

Chronic difficulties arising from mild brain injury (TBI) are difficult to predict because the processes underlying changes after TBI are poorly understood. In mild brain injury the extent of neuropsychiatric and cognitive symptoms correspond poorly to overt tissue loss (Barth 1983; Liu 2010). Cellular, immune and hormonal cascades occurring after injury and continuing during the healing process may impact uninjured brain regions sensitive to the effects of physiological and emotional stress, which receive projections from the injury site. Changes in these most basic properties due to injury or disease have profound implications for virtually every aspect of brain function through disruption of neurotransmitter, neuroendocrine and metabolic systems. In order to screen for changes in transmitter and metabolic activity, in this study we developed Single voxel proton Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (1H-MRS) for use in both injured and control animals. We first evaluated if 1H-MRS could be used to evaluate in vivo, alterations in brain metabolism and catabolism of the prefrontal cortex, amygdala and ventral hippocampus in both control and injured animals after controlled cortical impact injury to the rat prefrontal cortex. We found that metabolite measurements for Myo-Inositol, Choline, creatine, Glutamate+Glutamine, and N-acetyl-acetate are attainable in deep brain structures in vivo in injured and controls rats. We next seek to evaluate longitudinally, in vivo, alterations in brain metabolism and catabolism of the prefrontal cortex, amygdala and ventral hippocampus during the first month after controlled cortical impact injury to the rat prefrontal cortex. These ongoing studies will provide data on the changes in transmitters and metabolites over time in injured and non-injured subjects. These studies address some of the fundamental questions about how mild brain injury has such diverse effects on overall brain health and function.

The land hoarding and land inspector dilemma in China : an evolutionary game theoretic perspective

China has experienced considerable economic growth since 1978, which was accompanied by unprecedented growth in urbanization and, more recently, by associated rising urban housing and land banking issues. One such issue is that of land hoarding - where real estate developers purchase land to hold unused in the rising market for a future lucrative sale, often several years later. This practice is outlawed in China, where land use is controlled by increasingly strengthened Government policies and inspectors. Despite this, land hoarding continues apace, with the main culprits being the developers and inspectors working subversively. This resembles a game between two players - the inspector and the developer - which provides the setting for this paper in developing an evolutionary game theory model to provide insights into dealing with the dilemmas faced by the players. The logic and dilemma of land banking strategy and illegal land banking issues are analysed, along with the land inspector’s role from a game theory perspective by determining the replication dynamic mechanism and evolutionary stable strategies under the various conditions that the players face. The major factors influencing the actions of land inspectors, on the other hand, are the costs of inspection, no matter if it is strict or indolent, conflict costs, and income and penalties from corruption. From this, it is shown that, when the net loss for corruption (income from corruption minus the penalties for corruption and cost of strict inspections) is less than the cost of strict inspections, the final evolutionary stable strategy of the inspectors is to carry out indolent inspections. Then, whether penalising developers for hoarding is severe or not, the evolutionary strategy for the developer is to hoard. The implications for land use control mechanisms and associated developer-inspector actions and counteractions are then examined in the light of the model's properties.

Barriers to entering affordable home ownership for young people: A preliminary study from university students’ perspectives

Over the last two decades, housing affordability has been a problem for young people, and identified as factor leading to youth homelessness. The National Youth Commission Inquiry into Youth Homelessness developed a roadmap for preventing this problem (National Youth Commission, 2008). The roadmap recommends increasing the supply of affordable housing for young people as an important strategy to reduce the risk of homelessness problems. In addition, understanding the barriers and the needs of young people is a significant part of the development of a national affordable housing strategy. This paper explores issues encountered by young people when they enter the housing market as first home buyers. A short survey was conducted to review the barriers to entry, classified by income levels, housing cost and availability of affordable housing. In the current competitive job market, young people have minimal work experience, relatively low job security and low income. In addition to these barriers, participants also suggested other barriers towards the purchase of their first home, such as lack of knowledge of legal issues and lack of government funding. This study suggests the need for both government and educational support for young people around housing choices and the development of financial strategies to manage barriers towards owning their first home.

Empirical reference points for Bernstein’s model of pedagogic rights: Recontextualising the reconciliation agenda to Australian schooling

In this chapter we use Bernstein’s (2000) model of pedagogic rights to examine the learning experiences for non-Indigenous teachers in two reconciliation projects. In the context within which we write, reconciliation is the process of establishing a culture of mutual respect between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and non-Indigenous Australians. In 1991, the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody linked the continuation of racism in Australian society to the weak coverage of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander content in the school curriculum (Reconciliation Australia 2010). Nearly two decades later, the Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians issued by the council of Federal, State and Territory Ministers of Education proclaimed that curriculum should enable all students to ‘understand and acknowledge the value of Indigenous cultures and possess the knowledge, skills and understanding to contribute to, and benefit from reconciliation between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians’ (MCEETYA 2008, 9). Education holds out promise not only of better life chances for Indigenous young people, but also of replacing myths with understanding and tackling prejudice and racism within the non-Indigenous population. Bernstein’s (2000) model of pedagogic rights promises some purchase on this pedagogic work by providing concepts for looking systematically at the participation of non-Indigenous teachers in education. As observed by Frandji and Vitale (Chapter 2, this volume), the model is not sufficient to achieve a democratic reality, ‘but simply provides a basis for problematizing reality and considering possibilities’.

De-risking development of medium density housing to improve housing affordability and boost supply

Housing price inflation is a national concern given the serious decline in the number of low and middle income households able to purchase housing. In addition housing supply lags well behind demand. In Melbourne, urban consolidation policies explicitly seek intensification to promote housing supply but planning regulation is often criticised for being a significant cost driver for medium density housing. It is assumed that easing supply constraints will improve affordability. We suggest that laissez-faire planning exacerbates affordability issues because this approach fails to address the basic economic problem: the current inability of the market to efficiently match supply and demand in order to progress an orderly and de-risked development process. The role of “exchange” one of the four housing market sub-systems identified by Burke (2012) has until recently generally been ignored but our examination reveals significant economic transaction costs that manifest as development risks that impact on affordability. Fortunately these can be mitigated, but only if there is a more consumer driven supply response.

Drivers of local food consumption: A comparative study

Purpose The aim of this paper is to empirically explore antecedents of local food purchase intention in two food producing countries with different cultural backgrounds. Design/methodology/approach An online survey was employed to collect data from consumers located in Chile (n=283) and Australia (n=300). A proposed model is tested with structural equation modelling (SEM). Findings Attitude towards consuming local food is a strong and direct driver of intentions to purchase local food in both countries. Attitude toward supporting local agri-businesses and consumer ethnocentrism are found to positively impact attitude towards consuming local food in both countries. Attitude towards local agri-businesses also has a direct effect on intentions to purchase local food in Australia, but not in Chile. Interestingly, subjective norms are not found to affect intentions to consume local food in either country. Research limitations/implications The paper examines factors affecting the attitude toward and behavioural intention regarding local food consumption and develops an extended model of local food consumption. An outcome of this new model is the inclusion of personal variables, which influence local food purchasing behaviour. Practical implications Producers and retailers need to develop campaigns explaining how consuming local food supports local businesses and farmers, which will reinforce personal values associated with local consumption. Originality/value This is the first study to demonstrate that positive attitudes toward local foods are important drivers of local food purchase behaviour, independent of the cultural characteristics or level of economic development within a country.

Key determinants of real estate service quality among renters and buyers

Purpose The purpose of this study is to compare quality perceptions of virtual servicescapes and physical service encounters among buyers and renters of real estate. Design/methodology/approach Qualitative data from a sample of 27 professionals engaged in higher education in the USA are gathered by recorded interview before being transcribed and imported into MAXQDA 2007 software for analytical coding. Findings Particular differences are found to exist between renters and buyers with regard to specific service attributes – for example, description of properties and type of visuals during the pre‐purchase stage, knowledge/experience and honest behavior of realtors during the service encounter stage and a continuous relationship with the realtor in the post‐encounter stage. Research limitations/implications Generalization of the results is limited because the study utilizes data from only one industry (real estate) and from only one demographic segment (professionals in higher education). Practical implications Real‐estate firms need to pay attention to both the training of agents and the design and content of their websites. Originality/value This paper contributes to knowledge regarding virtual servicescapes in professional services.

The role of emotions in service customer decision-making

This chapter explains how customers make purchase decisions and how these decisions are influenced not only by the service marketer but also by the customers own emotions. While decision-making is described from the perspective of purchasing services rather than purchasing goods, we challenge the traditional notion that customers make informed, rational and well-thought-out decisions. Rather customers are often driven by subjective feelings such as emotions. We present evidence of how these emotions influence the behavior of customers, their attitudes and evaluation of the service, as well as final decision-making processes.

The equity and efficiency of the Australian share market with respect to director trading

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate the extent of directors breaching the reporting requirements of the Australian Stock Exchange (ASX) and the Corporations Act in Australia. Further, it seeks to assess whether directors in Australia achieve abnormal returns from trades in their own companies. Design/methodology/approach – Using an event study approach on an Australian sample, abnormal returns for a range of situations were estimated. Findings – A total of 13 (seven) per cent of own‐company directors trades do not meet the ASX (Corporations Act) requirement of reporting within five (14) business days. Directors do achieve abnormal returns through trading in shares of their own companies. Ignoring transaction costs, outsiders can achieve abnormal returns by imitating directors' trades. Analysis of returns to directors after they trade but before they announce the trade to the market shows that directors are making small but statistically significant returns that are not available to the market. Analysis of returns to directors subsequent to the ASX reporting requirement up to the day the trade is reported shows that directors are making small but statistically significant returns that should be available to the market. Research limitations/implications – Future research should investigate the linkages between late reporting by directors and disadvantages to outside shareholders and the implementation of internal policies implemented to mitigate insider trading. Practical implications – Market participants should remain vigilant regarding the potential for late/non‐reporting of directors' trades. Originality/value – Uncovering breaches of reporting regulations are particularly important given that directors tend to purchase (sell) shares when the price is low (high), thereby achieving abnormal returns.

An Uber for apartments could solve some common housing problems

Speculative property developers, criticised for building dog boxes and the slums of tomorrow, are generally hated by urban planners and the public alike. But the doors of state governments are seemingly always open to developers and their lobbyists. Politicians find it hard to say no to the demands of the development industry for concessions because of the contribution housing construction makes to the economic bottom line and because there is a need for well located housing. New supply is also seen as a solution to declining housing affordability. Classical economic theory however is too simplistic for housing supply. Instead, an offshoot of Game Theory - Market Design – not only offers greater insight into apartment supply but also can simultaneously address price, design and quality issues. New research reveals the most significant risk in residential development is settlement risk – when buyers fail to proceed with their purchase despite there being a pre-sale contract. At the point of settlement, the developer has expended all the project funds only to see forecast revenue evaporate. While new buyers may be found, this process is likely to strip the profitability out of the project. As the global financial crisis exposed, buyers are inclined to walk if property values slide. This settlement problem reflects a poor legal mechanism (the pre-sale contract), and a lack of incentive for truthfulness. A second problem is the search costs of finding buyers. At around 10% of project costs, pre-sales are more expensive to developers than finance. This is where Market Design comes in.