Fyn kinase targets in oligodendroglial physiology and myelination

In the central nervous system (CNS), oligodendrocytes form the multilamellar and compacted myelin sheath by spirally wrapping around defined axons with their specialised plasma membrane. Myelin is crucial for the rapid saltatory conduction of nerve impulses and for the preservation of axonal integrity. The absence of the major myelin component Myelin Basic Protein (MBP) results in an almost complete failure to form compact myelin in the CNS. The mRNA of MBP is sorted to cytoplasmic RNA granules and transported to the distal processes of oligodendrocytes in a translationally silent state. A main mediator of MBP mRNA localisation is the trans-acting factor heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein (hnRNP) A2 which binds to the cis-acting A2 response element (A2RE) in the 3’UTR of MBP mRNA. A signalling cascade had been identified that triggers local translation of MBP at the axon-glial contact site, involving the neuronal cell adhesion molecule (CAM) L1, the oligodendroglial plasma membrane-tethered Fyn kinase and Fyn-dependent phosphorylation of hnRNP A2. This model was confirmed here, showing that L1 stimulates Fyn-dependent phosphorylation of hnRNP A2 and a remodelling of A2-dependent RNA granule structures. Furthermore, the RNA helicase DDX5 was confirmed here acting together with hnRNP A2 in cytoplasmic RNA granules and is possibly involved in MBP mRNA granule dynamics.rnLack of non-receptor tyrosine kinase Fyn activity leads to reduced levels of MBP and hypomyelination in the forebrain. The multiadaptor protein p130Cas and the RNA-binding protein hnRNP F were verified here as additional targets of Fyn in oligodendrocytes. The findings point at roles of p130Cas in the regulation of Fyn-dependent process outgrowth and signalling cascades ensuring cell survival. HnRNP F was identified here as a novel constituent of oligodendroglial cytoplasmic RNA granules containing hnRNP A2 and MBP mRNA. Moreover, it was found that hnRNP F plays a role in the post-transcriptional regulation of MBP mRNA and that defined levels of hnRNP F are required to facilitate efficient synthesis of MBP. HnRNP F appears to be directly phosphorylated by Fyn kinase what presumably contributes to the initiation of translation of MBP mRNA at the plasma membrane.rnFyn kinase signalling thus affects many aspects of oligodendroglial physiology contributing to myelination. Post-transcriptional control of the synthesis of the essential myelin protein MBP by Fyn targets is particularly important. Deregulation of these Fyn-dependent pathways could thus negatively influence disorders involving the white matter of the nervous system.rnrn

Einfluss der Phosphorylierung durch die Casein Kinase II auf den HSP90-Chaperone-Zyklus in humanen Zellen

In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde eine Analysenmethode auf Basis der Massenbestimmung über Elektrospray-Ionisation qualifiziert, mit der es möglich ist, den Gehalt beider in humanen Zellen vorliegenden isoformen Chaperone HSP90-alpha und HSP90-beta sowie deren Phosphorylierungsstatus in der sog. „charged linker“-Region (CLR) getrennt voneinander zu bestimmen. Die Quantifizierung dieser posttranslationalen Modifikation von HSP90 in der noch wenig untersuchten Region des Chaperons stellte eine besondere Herausforderung an das analytische Messsystem dar, da diese sich fast ausschließlich aus geladenen Aminosäuren zusammensetzt und eine hohe Sequenzhomologie der beiden Isoformen in humanen Zellen vorliegt. Mit dieser Methode ist es gelungen, sowohl die stärkere Expression beider Isoformen in Tumor-Zelllinien im Vergleich zu Nicht-Tumor-Zelllinien als auch signifikant höhere Level beider phosphorylierten Varianten in den Tumor-Zelllinien nachzuweisen. Des Weiteren konnte durch gezielte Arretierung der Tumor-Zelllinie HCT116 in der G0/G1-Phase des Zellzyklus der Nachweis erbracht werden, dass nur HSP90-alpha in diesem Ruhestadium der Zellteilung in der phosphorylierten Form vorliegt. rnDa die Phosphorylierung der CLR von HSP90 als ein Marker für die Substrataktivierung herangezogen werden kann, besteht jetzt die Möglichkeit, Auswirkungen von z. B. HSP90-Inhibitoren auf beide HSP90-Isoformen hinsichtlich ihrer Expression und Phosphorylierung durch die Casein Kinase II (CK II) im zellulären Umfeld zu testen.rnIn-vitro konnte die Phosphorylierung der CLR von HSP90-alpha und -beta mit der CK II an den rekombinant hergestellten Proteinen nachgestellt werden. Dieses typische Phosphorylierungs-Motiv (S-X-X-E/D) findet man bei sehr vielen Co-Chaperonen wie auch bei der Prostaglandin E Synthase p23, das ebenfalls durch eine in-vitro Kinase-Reaktion mit der CK II an drei Positionen phosphoryliert wurde. Durch ein Binde-Assay zeigte sich, dass p23 nur in dieser modifizierten Form an HSP90-alpha bindet. Das Bindeverhalten von p23 an die beta-Isoform wird durch diese Phosphorylierung jedoch nicht beeinflusst. Diese Erkenntnisse erweitern das Verständnis des bis dato beschriebenen Chaperon-Zyklus von HSP90 und zeigen deutliche Unterschiede in den Aktivierungszyklen beider Isoformen auf. Da die Casein Kinase II hier entscheidend in den durch HSP90 vermittelten Aktivierungsprozess eingreift, eröffnet sich ein weites Feld an Möglichkeiten, diese Prozesse an weiteren Co-Chaperonen und Substratproteinen zu studieren.rn

Next-Generation Sequencing-Based Mutations Scanning Strategy of the BCR-ABL Kinase Domain in Patients with PhiladelPhia-Chromosome Positive Leukemias Treated with Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors

In chronic myeloid leukemia and Philadelphia-positive acute lymphoblastic leukemia patients resistant to tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs), BCR-ABL kinase domain mutation status is an essential component of the therapeutic decision algorithm. The recent development of Ultra-Deep Sequencing approach (UDS) has opened the way to a more accurate characterization of the mutant clones surviving TKIs conjugating assay sensitivity and throughput. We decided to set-up and validated an UDS-based for BCR-ABL KD mutation screening in order to i) resolve qualitatively and quantitatively the complexity and the clonal structure of mutated populations surviving TKIs, ii) study the dynamic of expansion of mutated clones in relation to TKIs therapy, iii) assess whether UDS may allow more sensitive detection of emerging clones, harboring critical 2GTKIs-resistant mutations predicting for an impending relapse, earlier than SS. UDS was performed on a Roche GS Junior instrument, according to an amplicon sequencing design and protocol set up and validated in the framework of the IRON-II (Interlaboratory Robustness of Next-Generation Sequencing) International consortium.Samples from CML and Ph+ ALL patients who had developed resistance to one or multiple TKIs and collected at regular time-points during treatment were selected for this study. Our results indicate the technical feasibility, accuracy and robustness of our UDS-based BCR-ABL KD mutation screening approach. UDS was found to provide a more accurate picture of BCR-ABL KD mutation status, both in terms of presence/absence of mutations and in terms of clonal complexity and showed that BCR-ABL KD mutations detected by SS are only the “tip of iceberg”. In addition UDS may reliably pick 2GTKIs-resistant mutations earlier than SS in a significantly greater proportion of patients.The enhanced sensitivity as well as the possibility to identify low level mutations point the UDS-based approach as an ideal alternative to conventional sequencing for BCR-ABL KD mutation screening in TKIs-resistant Ph+ leukemia patients

Biochemische Charakterisierung der Zyklin-abhängigen Kinase 2,Aktivator-Komplexe des Parasiten Eimeria tenella sowie deren Nutzung in der Wirkstoffforschung

Der Stamm der Apicomplexa ist eine artenreiche Gruppe, der einzellige, meist obligat intrazelluläre Parasiten angehören, darunter auch erstzunehmende Krankheitserreger wie Plasmodium sp. sowie tierpathogene Vertreter wie Eimeria sp. und Theileria sp. Eimeria sp. verursacht die Kokzidiose beim Huhn. Diese Krankheit bedingt weltweite Verluste in der Geflügelindustrie von etwa 3 Milliarden US$ pro Jahr [DALLOUL & LILLEHOJ, 2006; SHIRLEY et al., 2007; LUCIUS & LOOS-FRANK, 2008]. Die Parasiten weisen eine hohe Resistenzbildungsrate gegen vorhandene Wirkstoffe auf. Zudem ist der Einsatz von Vakzinen mit Nebenwirkungen verbunden und für hohe Produktionskosten verantwortlich. Daher ist die Entwicklung von neuen, kostengünstigen und effektiven Kokzidiostatika eine dringend notwendige Herausforderung [KINNAIRD et al., 2004]. rnAuf Grund ihrer essentiellen, regulatorischen Funktion im eukaryotischen Zellzyklus sind Zyklin-abhängige Kinasen (CDKs) validierte Zielproteine [LEHNINGER et al., 2005]. Auch Eimeria tenella CDC2-related kinase 2 (EtCRK2) wurde bereits mittels des bekannten CDK-Inhibitors Flavopiridol als Zielprotein chemisch validiert [ENGELS et al., 2010]. Wie bei allen CDKs ist die Aktivität von EtCRK2 abhängig von der Bindung eines Aktivators, der zur Zyklin-Proteinfamilie gehört. Dieser natürliche EtCRK2-Aktivator war jedoch bislang nicht bekannt. Deshalb war ein Teil dieser Arbeit die Identifizierung des natürlichen EtCRK2-Aktivators. Bioinformatische Analysen identifizierten vier E. tenella Zyklin-ähnliche Proteine (EtCYC1, EtCYC3a, EtCYC3b und EtCYC4), die nah verwandt zu den Plasmodium falciparum-Zyklinen sind [ENGELS et al., 2010; SUÁREZ FERNÁNDEZ et al., bislang unveröffentlichte Daten]. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit konnten zwei neue Aktivatoren identifiziert und biochemisch charakterisiert werden: der bekannte CDK-Aktivator XlRINGO und das neue E. tenella-Zyklin EtCYC3a. Nachdem der nicht-radioaktive TR-FRET-Assay für die EtCRK2 etabliert und optimiert wurde, konnte die EtCRK2-Aktivität im Komplex mit beiden Aktivatoren und weitere wichtige kinetische Parameter bestimmt werden.rnZusätzlich wurde dieser Assay zum in vitro Screening einer kommerziellen Chemikalienbibliothek auf die EtCRK2 eingesetzt, um potentielle Inhibitoren für EtCRK2 zu identifizieren. Dieses in vitro Screening gefolgt von einer in silico Hit-Anreicherung identifizierte 19 aktive Verbindungen für die durch EtCYC3a und XlRINGO aktivierte EtCRK2. Zudem wurden drei Struktur-Cluster definiert: Naphthoquinone, 8-Hydroxyquinoline und 2-Pyrimidinyl-aminopiperidin-propan-2-ole. rnDie aktivsten Vertreter von jedem Cluster wurden als Leitstrukturen ausgewählt und auf EtCRK2 und HsCDK2 getestet. Aufgrund ihrer inhibierenden Wirkung auf EtCRK2 stellen diese Verbindungen viel versprechende Leitstrukturen für die Entwicklung eines neuen Antikokzidiums dar. Hiermit konnte auch gezeigt werden, dass BES124764, der Vertreter des 2-Pyrimidinyl-aminopiperidin-propan-2-ol-Clusters, in der Lage ist, die EtCRK2 selektiv zu inhibieren. rnDaher wird BES124764 sowie einige Derivate in den Leitstruktur-Optimierungsprozess für die Auffindung eines neuen Arzneimittelkandidaten gegen Kokzidiose eingehen.rn

Optimization of RNA-based transgene expression by targeting Protein Kinase R

The aim of this thesis was to establish a method for repeated transfection of in vitro transcribed RNA (IVT-RNA) leading to a sustained protein expression lasting for days or even weeks. Once transfected cells recognize IVT-RNA as "non-self" and initiate defense pathways leading to an upregulated interferon (IFN) response and stalled translation. In this work Protein Kinase R (PKR) was identified as the main effector molecule mediating this cellular response. We assessed four strategies to inhibit PKR and the IFN response: A small molecule PKR inhibitor enhanced protein expression and hampered the induction of IFN-transcripts, but had to be excluded due to cytotoxicity. A siRNA mediated PKR knockdown and the overexpression of a kinase inactive PKR mutant elevated the protein expression, but the down-regulation of the IFN response was insufficient. The co-transfer of the viral inhibitors of PKR and the IFN response was most successful. The use of E3, K3 and B18R co-transfection enabled repeated IVT-RNA-based transfection of human fibroblasts. Thus, the developed protocol allows a continuous IVT-RNA encoded protein expression of proteins, which could be the basis for the generation of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS) for several therapeutic applications in regenerative medicine or drug research.

Regulation von "Silent mating type information regulation 2 homolog Type" 1 (SIRT1) durch die nach DNA-Schaden induzierte Kinase "Homeodomain-interaction kinase" (HIPK2)

"Silent mating type information regulation 2 Type" 1 (SIRT1), das humane Homolog der NAD+-abhängigen Histondeacetylase Sir2 aus Hefe, besitzt Schlüsselfunktionen in der Regulation des Metabolismus, der Zellalterung und Apoptose. Letztere wird vor allem durch die Deacetylierung von p53 an Lys382 und der dadurch verringerten Transkription proapoptotischer Zielgene vermittelt. Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die SIRT1 Regulation im Zusammenhang mit der DNA-Schadensantwort untersucht.rnIn der Apoptoseregulation übernimmt die Serin/Threonin-Kinase "Homeodomain interacting protein kinase" 2 (HIPK2) eine zentrale Rolle und daher wurde die SIRT1 Modifikation und Regulation durch HIPK2 betrachtet. Durch Phosphorylierung des Tumorsuppressorproteins p53 an Ser46 aktiviert HIPK2 das Zielprotein und induziert die Transkription proapoptotischer Zielgene von p53. Es wurde beschrieben, dass HIPK2 nach DNA-Schädigung über einen bisher unbekannten Mechnismus die Acetylierung von p53 potenzieren kann.rnIn der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass SIRT1 von HIPK2 in vitro und in Zellen an Serin 27 und 682 phosphoryliert wird. Weiterhin ist die Interaktion von SIRT1 mit HIPK2 sowie die SIRT1 Phosphorylierung an Serin 682 durch DNA-schädigende Adriamycinbehandlung erhöht. Es gibt Hinweise, dass HIPK2 die Expression von SIRT1 reguliert, da HIPK2 RNA-Interferenz zur Erniedrigung der SIRT1 Protein- und mRNA-Mengen führt.rnEin weiterer interessanter Aspekt liegt in der Beobachtung, dass Ko-Expression von PML-IV, welches SIRT1 sowie HIPK2 in PML-Kernkörper rekrutiert, die SIRT1 Phosphorylierung an Serin 682 verstärkt. Phosphorylierung von SIRT1 an Serin 682 interferiert wiederum mit der SUMO-1 Modifikation, welche für die Lokalisation in PML-Kernkörpen wichtig ist.rnBemerkenswerterweise reduziert die DNA-schadendsinduzierte SIRT1 Phosphorylierung die Bindung des SIRT1 Ko-Aktivators AROS, beeinflusst aber nicht diejenige des Inhibitors DBC1. Dies führt zur Reduktion der enzymatischen Aktivität von SIRT1 und der darausfolgenden weniger effizienten Deacetylierung des Zielproteins p53.rnDurch die von mir in der vorliegenden Promotionsarbeit erzielten Ergebnisse konnte ein neuer molekularer Mechanismus entschlüsselt werden, welcher die durch HIPK2 modulierte Acetylierung von p53 und die daran anschließende Induktion der Apoptose beschreibt.rnHIPK2-vermittelte SIRT1 Phosphorylierung resultiert in einer verminderten Deacetylasefunktion von SIRT1 und führt so zu einer verstärkten acetylierungsinduzierten Expression proapoptotischer p53 Zielgene.

Epigallocatechin-3-gallate induces cell death in acute myeloid leukaemia cells and supports all-trans retinoic acid-induced neutrophil differentiation via death-associated protein kinase 2

Acute promyelocytic leukaemia (APL) patients are successfully treated with all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA). However, concurrent chemotherapy is still necessary and less toxic therapeutic approaches are needed. Earlier studies suggested that in haematopoietic neoplasms, the green tea polyphenol epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) induces cell death without adversely affecting healthy cells. We aimed at deciphering the molecular mechanism of EGCG-induced cell death in acute myeloid leukaemia (AML). A significant increase of death-associated protein kinase 2 (DAPK2) levels was found in AML cells upon EGCG treatment paralleled by increased cell death that was significantly reduced upon silencing of DAPK2. Moreover, combined ATRA and EGCG treatment resulted in cooperative DAPK2 induction and potentiated differentiation. EGCG toxicity of primary AML blasts correlated with 67 kDa laminin receptor (67LR) expression. Pretreatment of AML cells with ATRA, causing downregulation of 67LR, rendered these cells resistant to EGCG-mediated cell death. In summary, it was found that (i) DAPK2 is essential for EGCG-induced cell death in AML cells, (ii) ATRA and EGCG cotreatment significantly boosted neutrophil differentiation, and 67LR expression correlates with susceptibility of AML cells to EGCG. We thus suggest that EGCG, by selectively targeting leukaemic cells, may improve differentiation therapies for APL and chemotherapy for other AML subtypes.

Sphingosine kinase 1 is critically involved in nitric oxide-mediated human endothelial cell migration and tube formation

Sphingosine kinases (SKs) convert sphingosine to sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P), which is a bioactive lipid that regulates a variety of cellular processes including proliferation, differentiation and migration.

A novel mode of action of the putative sphingosine kinase inhibitor 2-(p-hydroxyanilino)-4-(p-chlorophenyl) thiazole (SKI II): induction of lysosomal sphingosine kinase 1 degradation

Sphingosine kinase 1 (SK1) is a key enzyme in the generation of sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) which critically regulates a variety of important cell responses such as proliferation and migration. Therefore, inhibition of SK-1 has been suggested to be an attractive approach to treat tumor growth and metastasis formation.

An overlapping kinase and phosphatase docking site regulates activity of the retinoblastoma protein

The phosphorylation state and corresponding activity of the retinoblastoma tumor suppressor protein (Rb) are modulated by a balance of kinase and phosphatase activities. Here we characterize the association of Rb with the catalytic subunit of protein phosphatase 1 (PP1c). A crystal structure identifies an enzyme docking site in the Rb C-terminal domain that is required for efficient PP1c activity toward Rb. The phosphatase docking site overlaps with the known docking site for cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk), and PP1 competition with Cdk-cyclins for Rb binding is sufficient to retain Rb activity and block cell-cycle advancement. These results provide the first detailed molecular insights into Rb activation and establish a novel mechanism for Rb regulation in which kinase and phosphatase compete for substrate docking.

Fast kinase domain-containing protein 3 is a mitochondrial protein essential for cellular respiration

Fas-activated serine/threonine phosphoprotein (FAST) is the founding member of the FAST kinase domain-containing protein (FASTKD) family that includes FASTKD1-5. FAST is a sensor of mitochondrial stress that modulates protein translation to promote the survival of cells exposed to adverse conditions. Mutations in FASTKD2 have been linked to a mitochondrial encephalomyopathy that is associated with reduced cytochrome c oxidase activity, an essential component of the mitochondrial electron transport chain. We have confirmed the mitochondrial localization of FASTKD2 and shown that all FASTKD family members are found in mitochondria. Although human and mouse FASTKD1-5 genes are expressed ubiquitously, some of them are most abundantly expressed in mitochondria-enriched tissues. We have found that RNA interference-mediated knockdown of FASTKD3 severely blunts basal and stress-induced mitochondrial oxygen consumption without disrupting the assembly of respiratory chain complexes. Tandem affinity purification reveals that FASTKD3 interacts with components of mitochondrial respiratory and translation machineries. Our results introduce FASTKD3 as an essential component of mitochondrial respiration that may modulate energy balance in cells exposed to adverse conditions by functionally coupling mitochondrial protein synthesis to respiration.

The Arabidopsis PHYTOCHROME KINASE SUBSTRATE2 protein is a phototropin signaling element that regulates leaf flattening and leaf positioning

In Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), the blue light photoreceptor phototropins (phot1 and phot2) fine-tune the photosynthetic status of the plant by controlling several important adaptive processes in response to environmental light variations. These processes include stem and petiole phototropism (leaf positioning), leaf flattening, stomatal opening, and chloroplast movements. The PHYTOCHROME KINASE SUBSTRATE (PKS) protein family comprises four members in Arabidopsis (PKS1-PKS4). PKS1 is a novel phot1 signaling element during phototropism, as it interacts with phot1 and the important signaling element NONPHOTOTROPIC HYPOCOTYL3 (NPH3) and is required for normal phot1-mediated phototropism. In this study, we have analyzed more globally the role of three PKS members (PKS1, PKS2, and PKS4). Systematic analysis of mutants reveals that PKS2 (and to a lesser extent PKS1) act in the same subset of phototropin-controlled responses as NPH3, namely leaf flattening and positioning. PKS1, PKS2, and NPH3 coimmunoprecipitate with both phot1-green fluorescent protein and phot2-green fluorescent protein in leaf extracts. Genetic experiments position PKS2 within phot1 and phot2 pathways controlling leaf positioning and leaf flattening, respectively. NPH3 can act in both phot1 and phot2 pathways, and synergistic interactions observed between pks2 and nph3 mutants suggest complementary roles of PKS2 and NPH3 during phototropin signaling. Finally, several observations further suggest that PKS2 may regulate leaf flattening and positioning by controlling auxin homeostasis. Together with previous findings, our results indicate that the PKS proteins represent an important family of phototropin signaling proteins.

Level of G protein-coupled receptor kinase-2 determines myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury via pro- and anti-apoptotic mechanisms

Activation of prosurvival kinases and subsequent nitric oxide (NO) production by certain G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) protects myocardium in ischemia/reperfusion injury (I/R) models. GPCR signaling pathways are regulated by GPCR kinases (GRKs), and GRK2 has been shown to be a critical molecule in normal and pathological cardiac function.

Activation of sphingosine kinase 2 is an endogenous protective mechanism in cerebral ischemia

The two ubiquitously expressed sphingosine kinases (SphK) 1 and 2 are key regulators of the sphingolipid signaling pathway. Despite the formation of an identical messenger, i.e. sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P), they exert strikingly different functions. Particularly, SphK2 is necessary for the phosphorylation of the sphingosine analog fingolimod (FTY720), which is protective in rodent stroke models. Using gene deficient mice lacking either SphK1 or SphK2, we investigated the role of the two lipid kinases in experimental stroke. We performed 2h transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO) and analyzed lesion size and neurological function after 24h. Treatment groups received 1mg/kg FTY720. Neutrophil infiltration, microglia activation, mRNA and protein expression of SphK1, SphK2 and the S1P(1) receptor after tMCAO were studied. Genetic deletion of SphK2 but not SphK1 increased ischemic lesion size and worsened neurological function after tMCAO. The protective effect of FTY720 was conserved in SphK1(-/-) mice but not in SphK2(-/-) mice. This suggests that SphK2 activity is an important endogenous protective mechanism in cerebral ischemia and corroborates that the protective effect of FTY720 is mediated via phospho-FTY720.