Toll-like Receptor 2 Knockout Mice Showed Increased Periapical Lesion Size and Osteoclast Number

Introduction: The aim of this study was to characterize the formation and progression of experimentally induced periapical lesions in TLR2 knockout (TLR2 KO) mice. Methods: Periapical lesions were induced in molars of 28 wild type (WT) and 27 TLR2 KO mice. After 7, 21, and 42 days, the animals were euthanized, and the mandibles were subjected to histotechnical processing. Hematoxylin-eosin-stained sections were examined under conventional light microscopy for the description of pulpal, apical, and periapical features and under fluorescence microscopy for the determination of the periapical lesion size. The subsequent sections were evaluated by tartrate resistant acid phosphatase histoenzymology (osteoclasts), Brown and Brenn staining (bacteria), and immunohistochemistry (RANK, RANKL, and OPG). Data were analyzed by the Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal-Wallis tests (alpha = 0.05), Results: The WT group showed significant differences (P < .05) in the periapical lesion size and the osteoclast number between 7 and 42 days and between 21 and 42 days. In the TLR2 KO group, significant differences (P < .05) in the periapical lesion size and the osteoclast number were found between 7 days and the other periods. There was a significant difference (P < .05) between the 2 types of animal regarding the periapical lesion size, which was larger in the TLR2 KO animals. No significant differences (P > .05) were found between WT and TLR2 KO mice related to the pulpal, apical, and periapical features; bacteria localization; and immunohistochemical results (except for RANK expression). Conclusions: TLR2 KO animals developed larger periapical lesions with a greater number of osteoclasts, indicating the important role of this receptor in the host's immune and inflammatory response to root canal and periradicular infection. (J Endod 2012;38:803-813)

Structural Insights into Human Peroxisome Proliferator Activated Receptor Delta (PPAR-Delta) Selective Ligand Binding

Peroxisome proliferator activated receptors (PPARs delta, alpha and gamma) are closely related transcription factors that exert distinct effects on fatty acid and glucose metabolism, cardiac disease, inflammatory response and other processes. Several groups developed PPAR subtype specific modulators to trigger desirable effects of particular PPARs without harmful side effects associated with activation of other subtypes. Presently, however, many compounds that bind to one of the PPARs cross-react with others and rational strategies to obtain highly selective PPAR modulators are far from clear. GW0742 is a synthetic ligand that binds PPAR delta more than 300-fold more tightly than PPAR alpha or PPAR gamma but the structural basis of PPAR delta: GW0742 interactions and reasons for strong selectivity are not clear. Here we report the crystal structure of the PPAR delta:GW0742 complex. Comparisons of the PPAR delta:GW0742 complex with published structures of PPARs in complex with alpha and gamma selective agonists and pan agonists suggests that two residues (Val312 and Ile328) in the buried hormone binding pocket play special roles in PPAR delta selective binding and experimental and computational analysis of effects of mutations in these residues confirms this and suggests that bulky substituents that line the PPAR alpha and gamma ligand binding pockets as structural barriers for GW0742 binding. This analysis suggests general strategies for selective PPAR delta ligand design.

alpha 1-Acid Glycoprotein Decreases Neutrophil Migration and Increases Susceptibility to Sepsis in Diabetic Mice

The mechanisms underlying immune deficiency in diabetes are largely unknown. In the present study, we demonstrate that diabetic mice are highly susceptible to polymicrobial sepsis due to reduction in rolling, adhesion, and migration of leukocytes to the focus of infection. In addition, after sepsis induction, CXCR2 was strongly downregulated in neutrophils from diabetic mice compared with nondiabetic mice. Furthermore, CXCR2 downregulation was associated with increased G-protein coupled receptor kinase 2 (GRK2) expression in these cells. Different from nondiabetic mice, diabetic animals submitted to mild sepsis displayed a significant augment in alpha 1-acid glycoprotein (AGP) hepatic mRNA expression and serum protein levels. Administration of AGP in nondiabetic mice subjected to mild sepsis inhibited the neutrophil migration to the focus of infection, as well as induced t-selectin shedding and rise in CD11b of blood neutrophils. Insulin treatment of diabetic mice reduced mortality rate, prevented the failure of neutrophil migration, impaired GRK2-mediated CXCR2 downregulation, and decreased the generation of AGP. Finally, administration of AGP abolished the effect of insulin treatment in diabetic mice. Together, these data suggest that AGP may be involved in reduction of neutrophil migration and increased susceptibility to sepsis in diabetic mice. Diabetes 61:1584-1591, 2012

Periodontal treatment downregulates protease-activated receptor 2 in human gingival crevicular fluid cells

Protease-activated receptor 2 (PAR2) is implicated in the pathogenesis of chronic inflammatory diseases, including periodontitis; it can be activated by gingipain and produced by Porphyromonas gingivalis and by neutrophil protease 3 (P3). PAR2 activation plays a relevant role in inflammatory processes by inducing the release of important inflammatory mediators associated with periodontal breakdown. The effects of periodontal treatment on PAR2 expression and its association with levels of proinflammatory mediators and activating proteases were investigated in chronic periodontitis patients. Positive staining for PAR2 was observed in gingival crevicular fluid cells and was reflective of tissue destruction. Overexpression of PAR2 was positively associated with inflammatory clinical parameters and with the levels of interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-8, tumor necrosis factor alpha, matrix metalloprotease 2 (MMP-2), MMP-8, hepatocyte growth factor, and vascular endothelial growth factor. Elevated levels of gingipain and P3 and decreased levels of dentilisin and the protease inhibitors secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor and elafin were also associated with PAR2 overexpression. Healthy periodontal sites from individuals with chronic periodontitis showed diminished expression of PAR2 mRNA and the PAR2 protein (P < 0.05). Furthermore, periodontal treatment resulted in decreased PAR2 expression and correlated with decreased expression of inflammatory mediators and activating proteases. We concluded that periodontal treatment resulted in decreased levels of proteases and that proinflammatory mediators are associated with decreased PAR2 expression, suggesting that PAR2 expression is influenced by the presence of periodontal infection and is not a constitutive characteristic favoring periodontal inflammation.

Aktivierung der alpha-Sekretase ADAM10 als neuer therapeutischer Ansatz zur Behandlung der Alzheimer-Erkrankung

Die Stimulation der APP-prozessierenden α-Sekretase ADAM10 eröffnet eine vielversprechende Möglichkeit zur medizinischen Behandlung der Alzheimer-Krankheit. In dieser Arbeit wurden drei unterschiedliche Strategien zur therapeutischen Aktivierung von ADAM10 verfolgt: Die Aktivierung des G-Protein-gekoppelten Rezeptors PAC1 durch PACAP, die Gentherapie mit ADAM10-cDNA und die ADAM10-Promotorstimulation durch Retinoid-Rezeptor-Aktivierung. PACAP-38 stimuliert die α-Sekretase-vermittelte APPsα-Sekretion in humanen Neuroblastomzellen. Durch Aktivierung des PAC-1-Rezeptors via intranasal verabreichtem PACAP-38, konnte eine erhöhte α-sekretorische APP-Prozessierung bzw. verminderte Ablagerung von amyloiden Plaques in Mäusen gezeigt werden. Weiterhin sollte durch Immunoliposomen-basierte Transfektion die humane ADAM10-cDNA in den Neuronen der Maus überexprimiert werden. Hiefür wurde die DNA in Liposomen eingeschlossen, welche an ihrer Oberfläche mit anti-Transferrin-Antikörpern zur Überwindung der Blut-Hirn-Schranke gekoppelt waren. Für die Herstellung des DNA-Transportsystems wurden die Einzelschritte wie DNA-Einschluss mit einem Reportergen-Vektor, Konjugation mit verschiedenen Antikörpern und Größe der Liposomen erprobt und optimiert. Es konnte allerdings weder in vitro noch in vivo eine Immunoliposomen-vermittelte Transfektion nachgewiesen werden. In dieser Arbeit wurde zudem die Retinoid-basierte Expressionssteigerung von ADAM10 untersucht. Dafür wurden die beiden potentiellen Retinoid-Rezeptor-Bindestellen auf dem ADAM10-Promotor durch Verwendung selektiver nukleärer Rezeptor-Agonisten charakterisiert. Hierbei konnte erstmals gezeigt werden, dass der ADAM10-Promotor durch ein Dimer der nukleären Rezeptoren RAR und RXR aktiviert wird, wodurch eine erhöhte α-sekretorischen APP-Prozessierung in Neuroblastoma-Zellen resultiert. Weiterhin konnte gezeigt werden, dass die RAR/RXR-Heterodimeraktivierung sowohl auf dem humanen wie auf dem murinen ADAM10-Promotor identisch ist, so dass am Mausmodell entwickelte Retinoid-basierte Therapien auf den Menschen übertragbar sind. Für das Modell einer solchen Therapie wurde Acitretin verwendet, welches für die medizinische Behandlung humaner Hautkrankheiten seit Jahrzehnten eingesetzt wird. In dieser Arbeit konnte erstmals gezeigt werden, dass Acitretin in humanen und murinen Neuroblastoma-Zellen die Menge an ADAM10 erhöht, wodurch die α-sekretorische APP-Prozessierung gesteigert wird. Zudem wurden Mäuse mit Acitretin oral, subcutan und intranasal behandelt, wobei jedoch weder eine Veränderung in der APP-Prozessierung noch der Blut-Hirn-Transport von Acitretin eindeutig belegt werden konnten. Dennoch erschließt die α-Sekretase-erhöhende Eigenschaft von Acitretin einen neuen Therapieansatz, zur Behandlung von Demenzformen vom Typ des Morbus Alzheimer.

Neue 18 F-markierte Liganden zur Visualisierung des GABA A, alpha 5-Rezeptorstatus mittels PET

Die heutige Verfügbarkeit der molekularen Bildgebung ermöglicht einen signifikanten Einfluss auf die Diagnostik und die Therapiekontrolle von neurodegenerativen Erkrankungen, die unter anderem durch Fehlsteuerungen im GABAergen System auftreten können. Die Visualisierung und Quantifizierung des GABAA-alpha5-Subtyps durch PET könnte dabei zu einem besseren Verständnis von Erkrankungen wie Alzheimer und traumatischen Neurosen (emotionales Langzeitgedächtnis) beitragen. Ferner eröffnen GABAA/alpha5-subtypselektive Liganden die Möglichkeit, wesentliche Grundlagen der elementaren Vorgänge von Lernen und Erinnern zu untersuchen. 7,8,9,10-Tetrahydro-(7,10-ethan)-1,2,4-triazol[3,4-alpha]phthalazine stellen sich als vielverspre-chende Leitstrukturen zur Entwicklung neuer 18F-markierter alpha5-subtypselektiver GABAA-Rezeptorliganden für die PET dar. Um diese neuartigen Substanzen hinsichtlich ihrer Potenz als GABAA-alpha5-subtypselektive Radioliganden zu verifizieren, wurden zunächst die entsprechenden 19F-Derivate TC07-TC12 synthetisiert. Diese Referenzverbindungen wurden in Rezeptor-bindungsassays und in Autoradiographien mit [3H]Ro 15-4513 als zu verdrängender Radioligand evaluiert. In beiden Experimenten als auch in in vivo-Verdrängungsexperimenten an Ratten konnte eine hohe Affinität im nanomolaren Bereich als auch eine hohe Selektivität bezüglich der GABAA/alpha5-Untereinheit für einige der dargestellten Referenzverbindungen nachgewiesen werden. Gemäß diesen vielversprechenden Ergebnissen wurden verschiedene Markie-rungsvorläufer für eine 18F-Direktmarkierung der relevantesten Substanz TC07 in einer mehrstufigen organischen Synthese dargestellt. Die anschließende 18F-Markierung erfolgte über eine nukleophile Substitution mit [18F]Fluorid. Die Reaktionsparameter wurden hinsichtlich Reaktionstemperatur und dauer, Markierungsvorläuferkonzentration, Basenabhängigkeit und verschiedenen Markierungsmethoden optimiert. Daraus resultierend konnte [18F]TC07 mit bis zu 45 % radiochemischer Ausbeute erhalten werden. Die zerfallskorrigierte, gesamtradiochemische Ausbeute von nca [18F]TC07 in isotonischer NaCl-Lösung betrug 15 %. Basierend auf den bisher erhaltenen Ergebnissen wurde der Radioligand in in vitro-, ex vivo- und in vivo µPET-Experimenten evaluiert. Die zunächst durchgeführten in vitro-Experimente deuteten auf eine homogene Verteilung der Aktivität hin und zeigten keine spezifische Anreicherung. Diese Ergebnisse wurden sowohl in ex vivo- als auch in in vivo-µPET-Studien bestätigt. Auch hier konnte nur eine niedrige Aktivitätsanreicherung, eine homogene Verteilung im gesamten Gehirn und keine Übereinstimmung mit der bekannten GABAA/alpha5-Subtypverteilung gefunden werden. Eine im Anschluss durchgeführte Metabolismusstudie zeigte eine langsame Metabolisierungsrate des [18F]TC07 und auch eine Organverteilungsstudie zeigte keine außergewöhnlichen Anreicherungen. Aus den erhaltenen Ergebnissen kann geschlossen werden, dass der Radioligand [18F]TC07 kein geeigneter Tracer zur in vivo-Visualisierung der alpha5-Untereinheit des GABAA-Rezeptors ist.

Falcarinol is a covalent cannabinoid CB1 receptor antagonist and induces pro-allergic effects in skin

The skin irritant polyyne falcarinol (panaxynol, carotatoxin) is found in carrots, parsley, celery, and in the medicinal plant Panax ginseng. In our ongoing search for new cannabinoid (CB) receptor ligands we have isolated falcarinol from the endemic Sardinian plant Seseli praecox. We show that falcarinol exhibits binding affinity to both human CB receptors but selectively alkylates the anandamide binding site in the CB(1) receptor (K(i)=594nM), acting as covalent inverse agonist in CB(1) receptor-transfected CHO cells. Given the inherent instability of purified falcarinol we repeatedly isolated this compound for biological characterization and one new polyyne was characterized. In human HaCaT keratinocytes falcarinol increased the expression of the pro-allergic chemokines IL-8 and CCL2/MCP-1 in a CB(1) receptor-dependent manner. Moreover, falcarinol inhibited the effects of anandamide on TNF-alpha stimulated keratinocytes. In vivo, falcarinol strongly aggravated histamine-induced oedema reactions in skin prick tests. Both effects were also obtained with the CB(1) receptor inverse agonist rimonabant, thus indicating the potential role of the CB(1) receptor in skin immunopharmacology. Our data suggest anti-allergic effects of anandamide and that falcarinol-associated dermatitis is due to antagonism of the CB(1) receptor in keratinocytes, leading to increased chemokine expression and aggravation of histamine action.

Alpha- versus beta-particle radiopeptide therapy in a human prostate cancer model (213Bi-DOTA-PESIN and 213Bi-AMBA versus 177Lu-DOTA-PESIN)

Recurrent prostate cancer presents a challenge to conventional treatment, particularly so to address micrometastatic and small-volume disease. Use of α-radionuclide therapy is considered as a highly effective treatment in such applications due to the shorter range and exquisite cytotoxicity of α-particles as compared with β-particles. (213)Bi is considered an α-emitter with high clinical potential, due to its short half-life (45.6 minutes) being well matched for use in peptide-receptor radionuclide α-therapy; however, there is limited knowledge available within this context of use. In this study, two novel (213)Bi-labeled peptides, DOTA-PEG(4)-bombesin (DOTA-PESIN) and DO3A-CH(2)CO-8-aminooctanoyl-Q-W-A-V-G-H-L-M-NH(2) (AMBA), were compared with (177)Lu (β-emitter)-labeled DOTA-PESIN in a human androgen-independent prostate carcinoma xenograft model (PC-3 tumor). Animals were injected with (177)Lu-DOTA-PESIN, (213)Bi-DOTA-PESIN, or (213)Bi-AMBA to determine the maximum tolerated dose (MTD), biodistribution, and dosimetry of each agent; controls were left untreated or were given nonradioactive (175)Lu-DOTA-PESIN. The MTD of (213)Bi-DOTA-PESIN and (213)Bi-AMBA was 25 MBq (0.68 mCi) whereas (177)Lu-DOTA-PESIN showed an MTD of 112 MBq (3 mCi). At these dose levels, (213)Bi-DOTA-PESIN and (213)Bi-AMBA were significantly more effective than (177)Lu-DOTA-PESIN. At the same time, (177)Lu-DOTA-PESIN showed minimal, (213)Bi-DOTA-PESIN slight, and (213)Bi-AMBA marked kidney damage 20 to 30 weeks posttreatment. These preclinical data indicate that α-therapy with (213)Bi-DOTA-PESIN or (213)Bi-AMBA is more efficacious than β-therapy. Furthermore, (213)Bi-DOTA-PESIN has a better safety profile than (213)Bi-AMBA, and represents a possible new approach for use in peptide-receptor radionuclide α-therapy treating recurrent prostate cancer.

Computational Design and Experimental Discovery of an Anti-estrogenic Peptide Derived from Alpha-Fetoprotein

Breast cancer is the most common cancer among women, and tamoxifen is the preferred drug for estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer treatment. Many of these cancers are intrinsically resistant to tamoxifen or acquire resistance during treatment. Consequently, there is an ongoing need for breast cancer drugs that have different molecular targets. Previous work has shown that 8-mer and cyclic 9-mer peptides inhibit breast cancer in mouse and rat models, interacting with an unsolved receptor, while peptides smaller than eight amino acids did not. We show that the use of replica exchange molecular dynamics predicts the structure and dynamics of active peptides, leading to the discovery of smaller peptides with full biological activity. Simulations identified smaller peptide analogues with the same conserved reverse turn demonstrated in the larger peptides. These analogues were synthesized and shown to inhibit estrogen-dependent cell growth in a mouse uterine growth assay, a test showing reliable correlation with human breast cancer inhibition.

Role of Toll interleukin-1 receptor (IL-1R) 8, a negative regulator of IL-1R/Toll-like receptor signaling, in resistance to acute Pseudomonas aeruginosa lung infection

Toll interleukin-1 receptor (IL-1R) 8 (TIR8), also known as single Ig IL-1 receptor (IL-R)-related molecule, or SIGIRR, is a member of the IL-1R-like family, primarily expressed by epithelial cells. Current evidence suggests that TIR8 plays a nonredundant role as a negative regulator in vivo under different inflammatory conditions that are dependent on IL-R and Toll-like receptor (TLR) activation. In the present study, we examined the role of TIR8 in innate resistance to acute lung infections caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a Gram-negative pathogen responsible for life-threatening infections in immunocompromised individuals and cystic fibrosis patients. We show that Tir8 deficiency in mice was associated with increased susceptibility to acute P. aeruginosa infection, in terms of mortality and bacterial load, and to exacerbated local and systemic production of proinflammatory cytokines (gamma interferon [IFN-γ], tumor necrosis factor alpha [TNF-α], IL-1β, and IL-6) and chemokines (CXCL1, CXCL2, and CCL2). It has been reported that host defense against P. aeruginosa acute lung infection can be improved by blocking IL-1 since exaggerated IL-1β production may be harmful for the host in this infection. In agreement with these data, IL-1RI deficiency rescues the phenotype observed in Tir8-deficient mice: in Tir8-/- IL-1RI-/- double knockout mice we observed higher survival rates, enhanced bacterial clearance, and reduced levels of local and systemic cytokine and chemokine levels than in Tir8-deficient mice. These results suggest that TIR8 has a nonredundant effect in modulating the inflammation caused by P. aeruginosa, in particular, by negatively regulating IL-1RI signaling, which plays a major role in the pathogenesis of this infectious disease.

Structural Analysis of alpha-Fetoprotein (AFP)-like Peptides with Anti-Breast-Cancer Properties

The abundance of alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), a natural protein produced by the fetal yolk sac during pregnancy, correlates with lower incidence of estrogen receptor positive (ER+) breast cancer. The pharmacophore region of AFP has been narrowed down to a four amino acid (AA) region in the third domain of the 591 AA peptide. Our computational study focuses on a 4-mer segment consisting of the amino acids threonine-proline-valine-asparagine (TPVN). We have run replica exchange molecular dynamics (REMD) simulations and used 120 configurational snapshots from the total trajectory as starting configurations for quantum chemical calculations. We optimized structures using semiempirical (PM3, PM6, PM6-D2, PM6-H2, PM6-DH+, PM6-DH2) and density functional methods (TPSS, PBE0, M06-2X). By comparing the accuracy of these methods against RI-MP2 benchmarks, we devised a protocol for calculating the lowest energy conformers of these peptides accurately and efficiently. This protocol screens out high-energy conformers using lower levels of theory and outlines a general method for predicting small peptide structures.

Opioids trigger alpha 5 beta 1 integrin-mediated monocyte adhesion

Inflammatory reactions involve a network of chemical and molecular signals that initiate and maintain host response. In inflamed tissue, immune system cells generate opioid peptides that contribute to potent analgesia by acting on specific peripheral sensory neurons. In this study, we show that opioids also modulate immune cell function in vitro and in vivo. By binding to its specific receptor, the opioid receptor-specific ligand DPDPE triggers monocyte adhesion. Integrins have a key role in this process, as adhesion is abrogated in cells treated with specific neutralizing anti-alpha5beta1 integrin mAb. We found that DPDPE-triggered monocyte adhesion requires PI3Kgamma activation and involves Src kinases, the guanine nucleotide exchange factor Vav-1, and the small GTPase Rac1. DPDPE also induces adhesion of pertussis toxin-treated cells, indicating involvement of G proteins other than Gi. These data show that opioids have important implications in regulating leukocyte trafficking, adding a new function to their known effects as immune response modulators.

mRNA expression and binding sites for alpha2-adrenergic receptor subtypes in muscle layers of the ileum and spiral colon of dairy cows

OBJECTIVE: To measure maximum binding capacity (B(max)) and levels of mRNA expression for alpha(2)-adrenergic receptor (AR) subtypes in ileal and colonic muscle layers of healthy dairy cows. SAMPLE POPULATION: Ileal and colonic muscle specimens from 6 freshly slaughtered cows. PROCEDURES: Ileal and colonic muscle layers were obtained by scraping the mucosa and submucosa from full-thickness tissue specimens. Level of mRNA expression for alpha(2)-AR subtypes was measured by real-time reverse transcriptase-PCR analysis and expressed relative to the mean mRNA expression of glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase, ubiquitin, and 18S ribosomal RNA. Binding studies were performed with tritiated RX821002 ((3)H-RX821002) and subtype-selective ligands as competitors. RESULTS: mRNA expression for alpha(2AD)-, alpha(2B)-, and alpha(2C)-AR subtypes was similar in ileal and colonic muscle layers. The mRNA expression for alpha(2AD)-AR was significantly greater than that for alpha(2B)- and alpha(2C)-AR subtypes, representing 92%, 6%, and 2%, respectively, of the total mRNA. Binding competition of (3)H-RX821002 with BRL44408, imiloxan, and MK-912 was best fitted by a 1-site model. The B(max) of alpha(2AD)- and alpha(2C)-AR sub-types was greater than that of alpha(2B)-AR. The B(max) and level of mRNA expression were only correlated (r = 0.8) for alpha(2AD)-AR. Ratio of B(max) to mRNA expression for alpha(2C)-AR was similar to that for alpha(2B)-AR, but significantly greater than for alpha(2AD)-AR. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Subtypes of alpha(2)-AR in bovine intestinal muscle layers are represented by a mixture of alpha(2AD)- and alpha(2C)-ARs and of alpha(2B)-AR at a lower density. Information provided here may help in clarification of the role of AR subtypes in alpha(2)-adrenergic mechanisms regulating bovine intestinal motility.

Quantitative mRNA analysis of adrenergic receptor subtypes in the intestines of healthy dairy cows and dairy cows with cecal dilatation-dislocation

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the distribution of mRNA coding for 9 adrenoceptor subtypes in the intestines of healthy dairy cows and cows with cecal dilatationdislocation (CDD). SAMPLE POPULATION: Full-thickness specimens of the intestinal wall were obtained from the ileum, cecum, proximal loop of the ascending colon (PLAC), and external loop of the spiral colon (ELSC) of 15 cows with CDD (group 1) and 15 healthy (control) cows (group 2, specimens collected during laparotomy; group 3, specimens collected after slaughter). PROCEDURES: Concentrations of mRNA for 9 adrenoceptor subtypes (alpha(1A), alpha(1B), alpha(1D), alpha(2AD), alpha(2B), alpha(2C), beta(1), beta(2), and beta(3)) were measured by quantitative real-time reverse transcriptase-PCR assay. Results were expressed relative to mRNA expression of a housekeeping gene. RESULTS: Expression of mRNA for alpha(1B)-, alpha(2AD)-, alpha(2B)-, beta(1)-, and beta(2)-adrenoceptors was significantly lower in cows with CDD than in control cows. In the ileum, these receptors all had lower mRNA expression in cows with CDD than in control cows. The same effect was detected in the ELSC for mRNA for alpha(2AD)-, alpha(2B)-, beta(1)-, and beta(2)-adrenoceptors, and in the cecum and PLAC for alpha(2B)- and beta(2)-adrenoceptors. Groups did not differ significantly for alpha(1A)-adrenoceptors. The mRNA expression for alpha(1D)-, alpha(2C)-, and beta(3)-adrenoceptors was extremely low in all groups. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Differences in expression of mRNA coding for adrenoceptors, most pronounced in the ileum and spiral colon, between cows with CDD and control cows support the hypothesis of an implication of adrenergic mechanisms in the pathogenesis of CDD in dairy cows.

Histamine increases sphingosine kinase-1 expression and activity in the human arterial endothelial cell line EA.hy 926 by a PKC-alpha-dependent mechanism

Sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) is a potent mitogenic signal generated from sphingosine by the action of sphingosine kinases (SKs). In this study, we show that in the human arterial endothelial cell line EA.hy 926 histamine induces a time-dependent upregulation of the SK-1 mRNA and protein expression which is followed by increased SK-1 activity. A similar upregulation of SK-1 is also observed with the direct protein kinase C activator 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA). In contrast, SK-2 activity is not affected by neither histamine nor TPA. The increased SK-1 protein expression is due to stimulated de novo synthesis since cycloheximide inhibited the delayed SK-1 protein upregulation. Moreover, the increased SK-1 mRNA expression results from an increased promoter activation by histamine and TPA. In mechanistic terms, the transcriptional upregulation of SK-1 is dependent on PKC and the extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK) cascade since staurosporine and the MEK inhibitor U0126 abolish the TPA-induced SK-1 induction. Furthermore, the histamine effect is abolished by the H1-receptor antagonist diphenhydramine, but not by the H2-receptor antagonist cimetidine. Parallel to the induction of SK-1, histamine and TPA stimulate an increased migration of endothelial cells, which is prevented by depletion of the SK-1 by small interfering RNA (siRNA). To appoint this specific cell response to a specific PKC isoenzyme, siRNA of PKC-alpha, -delta, and -epsilon were used to selectively downregulate the respective isoforms. Interestingly, only depletion of PKC-alpha leads to a complete loss of TPA- and histamine-triggered SK-1 induction and cell migration. In summary, these data show that PKC-alpha activation in endothelial cells by histamine-activated H1-receptors, or by direct PKC activators leads to a sustained upregulation of the SK-1 protein expression and activity which, in turn, is critically involved in the mechanism of endothelial cell migration.