Untersuchungen zur Chemosensitivität von testikulären Tumorzellen gegenüber Cisplatin

Metastasierender Krebs ist bei Erwachsenen in der Regel nicht heilbar. Eine Ausnahme stellen testikuläre Keimzelltumoren (TKZT) dar, da über 75 % der Patienten mit fortgeschrittenen metastasierenden TKZT mit einer auf Cisplatin basierenden Kombinations-Chemotherapie geheilt werden können. Zelllinien, die aus TKZT isoliert wurden, behalten diese Cisplatin-Sensitivität in vitro bei. Somit spiegeln Testistumorzelllinien die klinische Situation wider und sind deswegen ein gutes Modellsystem um zu untersuchen, welche Faktoren der Cisplatin-Sensitivität zugrunde liegen. Die Ursachen der Cisplatin-Sensitivität in Testistumoren sind nicht bekannt. Es wurde bereits gezeigt, dass Testistumorzellen eine geringe Kapazität für die Entfernung von Cisplatin-induzierten DNA-Platinierungen aufweisen. Dieser Defekt in der DNA-Reparatur könnte ein Faktor für die beobachtete Cisplatin-Sensitivität sein. Cisplatin induziert sowohl Intrastrang-Vernetzungen als auch Interstrang-Vernetzungen (ICLs). Die Bildung und Reparatur der Cisplatin-induzierten Intrastrang-Vernetzungen wurde mittels DNA-Slot-Blot, die Bildung und Entfernung von Interstrang-Vernetzungen wurde mithilfe des Comet-Assays untersucht. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde gezeigt, dass die Reparatur von Intrastrang-Vernetzungen in Testis- und Blasentumorzelllinien vergleichbar ist. Somit sind Testistumorzellen in diesem Reparaturweg nicht beeinträchtigt. Im Unterschied dazu zeigte sich, dass Testistumorzellen die ICLs nicht oder nur mit einer reduzierten Kapazität entfernen können.Da die ICL-Reparatur über die Bildung von DNA-Doppelstrangbrüchen (DSB) mit anschließender DSB-Reparatur verläuft, wurde die Kinetik der DSB-Reparatur anhand der Immundetektion der Histon-Variante γH2AX, die zur Visualisierung von DSB verwendet wird, verfolgt. γH2AX Foci wurden nach Behandlung mit Cisplatin in Testistumorzellen und Blasentumorzellen gebildet. Anders als in Blasentumorzellen blieb der Prozentsatz an γH2AX-positiven Zellen in Testistumorzellen bestehen. Offensichtlich konnten die Testistumorzellen die Cisplatin-induzierten ICLs nicht korrekt prozessieren, was dazu führte, dass γH2AX Foci persistierten. Da unreparierte DNA-Läsionen eine DNA-schadensabhängige Antwort einleiten können, wurde die Aktivierung der Hauptfaktoren dieser Signalwege untersucht. In den Testistumorzellen zeigte sich eine Erhöhung der p53 Proteinmenge nach Cisplatin-Behandlung. Des Weiteren wurde die durch Cisplatin induzierte Aktivierung von ATM/ATR, Chk1/Chk2, Bax und Noxa in Testis- und Blasentumorzellen vergleichend untersucht. Es wurde bereits gezeigt, dass der Reparaturfaktor ERCC1-XPF in Testistumorzelllinien reduziert vorliegt. Um eine mögliche Rolle von ERCC1-XPF für die Reparatur-Defizienz der ICLs und Cisplatin-Sensitivität in Testistumorzellen zu analysieren, wurde ERCC1-XPF in der Testistumorenzelllinie 833K mithilfe eines Expressionsvektors überexprimiert, und der Einfluss von ERCC1-XPF auf ICL-Reparatur sowie Cisplatin-Sensitivität wurde ermittelt. Überexpression von ERCC1-XPF führte zur Reparatur der ICLs in 833K-Zellen und verminderte die Cisplatinsensitivität. Somit scheint die Cisplatinsensitivität der Testistumorzellen, zumindest zum Teil, auf einer verminderten ICL-Reparatur zu beruhen. Des Weiteren wurde in „proof of principle“ Experimenten ERCC1-XPF in der Cisplatin-resistenten Blasentumorzelllinie MGH-U1 mittels siRNA herunterreguliert, und die Auswirkung der Herunterregulation auf die ICL-Reparatur und die Cisplatinsensitivität wurde geprüft. RNA-Interferenz-vermittelte Herunterregulierung von ERCC1-XPF reduzierte die Prozessierung der Cisplatin-induzierten ICLs und verstärkte die Cisplatinsensitivität in MGH-U1 Zellen. Somit wurde in dieser Arbeit zum ersten Mal gezeigt, dass die Testistumorzellen in Vergleich zu Blasentumorzellen in der Reparatur von ICLs defizient sind, wobei die verminderte ICL-Reparatur auf die geringe Expression von ERCC1-XPF zurückgeführt werden konnte. Diese ICL-Reparatur-Defizienz könnte, zumindest zu einem Teil, für die Sensitivität der Testistumoren gegenüber Cisplatin verantwortlich sein.

Pharmakologische Hemmung strahleninduzierter Tumorzell-Endothelzell-Interaktionen in vitro und Metastasierungsprozesse in vivo

Exposition von Endothelzellen mit ionisierender Strahlung (IR) oder Behandlung mit inflammatorischen Zytokinen (z. B. TNFa) induziert über eine Rho-GTPasen abhängige NF-kB-Aktivierung die Expression verschiedener Zelladhäsionsmoleküle, u. a. auch von E-Selektin. E-Selektin vermittelt die Adhäsion von Tumorzellen (TC) an Endothelzellen und ist daher vermutlich an der Extravasation von zirkulierenden Tumorzellen beteiligt. HMG-CoA-Reduktase-Inhibitoren (Statine), welche eine breite klinische Anwendung als Lipidsenker erfahren, sind in der Lage, Rho-GTPasen und die durch sie vermittelten Signalwege zu hemmen. Daher sollten Statine wie Lovastatin auch Zell-Zell-Adhäsionsvorgänge beeinflussen. Die vorliegende Arbeit widmet sich den Mechanismen, mit denen IR und TNF in Endothel- und/oder Tumorzellen pro-adhäsive Faktoren induzieren können und ob diese Effekte durch Lovastatin beeinflussbar sind. Zu diesem Zweck wurde mittels eines ELISA-basierenden Zelladhäsions-Assays die Auswirkung von IR und TNF auf Zell-Zell-Kontakte zwischen humanen Tumorzellen (u. a. Kolonkarzinomzellen (HT29)) und humanen, venösen Nabelschnurendothelzellen (HUVEC) analysiert. Zudem wurden die Effekte einer Lovastatinvorbehandlung von TC und/oder HUVEC auf TC-HUVEC-Adhäsion untersucht. Des Weiteren wurden die Wirkungen des sLex-Mimetikums Glycyrrhizin und des Rac1-spezifischen „small-molecule“ Inhibitors NSC23766 auf TC-HUVEC-Adhäsion überprüft. Zusätzlich wurde die strahleninduzierbare mRNA-Expression von diversen Zelladhäsionsmolekülen, Metastasierungsfaktoren und DNA-Reparatur-Genen mittels qRT-PCR (Real-Time Analysen) quantitativ erfasst. Um die erhaltenen in vitro Ergebnisse auch in vivo zu bestätigen, untersuchten wir den Effekt einer Ganzkörperbestrahlung (TBI) von BALB/c-Mäusen auf die Expression von pro-adhäsiven Faktoren. Zur Analyse der Tumorzell-Extravasation wurden Tumorzellen in die laterale Schwanzvene immundefizienter Mäuse injiziert und anschließend eine Ganzkörperbestrahlung durchgeführt (4 Gy). Nach einer Wartezeit von 4 Wochen wurde ein erhöhtes Auftreten von Lungenmetastasen beobachtet, welches durch Vorbehandlung der Tiere mit Statinen, NSC23766 oder Glycyrrhizin blockiert werden konnte. Zusammenfassend konnte somit ein Einfluss von IR auf die Expression verschiedener Zelladhäsionsmoleküle in vitro und auf die Extravasation zirkulierender Tumorzellen in vivo festgestellt werden. Diese pro-metastatischen Strahleneffekte konnten durch pharmakologische Hemmung Rho-regulierter Signalwege abgeschwächt werden.

Impact of anthropogenic stressors on the population genetics of the common bioindicator Dreissena polymorpha (Pallas, 1771)

Toxicant inputs from agriculture, industry and human settlements have been shown to severely affect freshwater ecosystems. Pollution can lead to changes in population genetic patterns through various genetic and stochastic processes. In my thesis, I investigated the impact of anthropogenic stressors on the population genetics of the zebra mussel Dreissena polymorpha. In order to analyze the genetics of zebra mussel populations, I isolated five new highly polymorphic microsatellite loci. Out of those and other already existing microsatellite markers for this species, I established a robust marker set of six microsatellite loci for D. polymorpha. rnMonitoring the biogeographical background is an important requirement when integrating population genetic measures into ecotoxicological studies. I analyzed the biogeographical background of eleven populations in a section of the River Danube (in Hungary and Croatia) and some of its tributaries, and another population in the River Rhine as genetic outgroup. Moreover, I measured abiotic water parameters at the sampling sites and analyzed if they were correlated with the genetic parameters of the populations. The genetic differentiation was basically consistent with the overall biogeographical history of the populations in the study region. However, the genetic diversity of the populations was not influenced by the geographical distance between the populations, but by the environmental factors oxygen and temperature and also by other unidentified factors. I found strong evidence that genetic adaptation of zebra mussel populations to local habitat conditions had influenced the genetic constitution of the populations. Moreover, by establishing the biogeographical baseline of molecular variance in the study area, I laid the foundation for interpreting population genetic results in ecotoxicological experiments in this region.rnIn a cooperation project with the Department of Zoology of the University of Zagreb, I elaborated an integrated approach in biomonitoring with D. polymorpha by combining the analysis techniques of microsatellite analysis, Comet assay and micronucleus test (MNT). This approach was applied in a case study on freshwater contamination by an effluent of a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) in the River Drava (Croatia) and a complementary laboratory experiment. I assessed and compared the genetic status of two zebra mussel populations from a contaminated and a reference site. Microsatellite analysis suggested that the contaminated population had undergone a genetic bottleneck, caused by random genetic drift and selection, whereas a bottleneck was not detected in the reference population. The Comet assay did not indicate any difference in DNA damage between the two populations, but MNT revealed that the contaminated population had an increased percentage of micronuclei in hemocytes in comparison to the reference population. The laboratory experiment with mussels exposed to municipal wastewater revealed that mussels from the contaminated site had a lower percentage of tail DNA and a higher percentage of micronuclei than the reference population. These differences between populations were probably caused by an overall decreased fitness of mussels from the contaminated site due to genetic drift and by an enhanced DNA repair mechanism due to adaptation to pollution in the source habitat. Overall, the combination of the three biomarkers provided sufficient information on the impact of both treated and non-treated municipal wastewater on the genetics of zebra mussels at different levels of biological organization.rnIn my thesis, I could show that the newly established marker set of six microsatellite loci provided reliable and informative data for population genetic analyses of D. polymorpha. The adaptation of the analyzed zebra mussel populations to the local conditions of their habitat had a strong influence on their genetic constitution. We found evidence that the different genetic constitutions of two populations had influenced the outcome of our ecotoxicological experiment. Overall, the integrated approach in biomonitoring gave comprehensive information about the impact of both treated and non-treated municipal wastewater on the genetics of zebra mussels at different levels of biological organization and was well practicable in a first case study.

Regulation des Proteins Alpha-Synuclein während der zellulären Alterung

α-Synuclein wird durch Mutationen sowie der Ausbildung von Proteinaggregaten namens Lewy-Körperchen mit der Entstehung der altersassoziierten Parkinson-Krankheit in Verbindung gebracht. Sowohl familiäre als auch sporadische Fälle sind durch erhöhte α-Synuclein-Spiegel gekennzeichnet. In familiären Fällen wurden Multiplikationen des α-Synuclein-Gens als Ursache für die erhöhte Expression aufgedeckt. In sporadischen Fällen stellt die Alterung den entscheidenden Risikofaktor für die Entstehung der Krankheit dar. Daher wurde in der vorliegenden Arbeit die Regulation von α-Synuclein während der zellulären Alterung in humanen Fibroblasten untersucht. In seneszenten Zellen konnte ein Anstieg der α-Synuclein-Expression nachgewiesen werden, der jedoch die Löslichkeit des Proteins nicht veränderte. Damit scheint die zelluläre Alterung per se nicht für die Aggregation des Proteins, wie sie in Form von Lewy-Körperchen bei z. B. Patienten der Parkinson-Krankheit beobachtet wird, verantwortlich zu sein. Möglicherweise ist die Hochregulation von α-Synuclein eine Folge der Akkumulation von DNA-Schäden in den seneszenten Zellen. Diese Korrelation konnte in jungen Zellen nach dem Einsatz verschiedener DNA-schädigender Agenzien bestätigt werden. Die Untersuchung des Regulationsmechanismus ergab, dass die erhöhte Expression von α-Synuclein in Folge von DNA-Schäden über den ERK1/2-MAPK-Signalweg vermittelt wird. In seneszenten Zellen konnte ebenfalls ein Einfluss dieses Signalweges auf die Expression von α-Synuclein beobachtet werden, allerdings scheint dieser nicht alleinig für die Hochregulation verantwortlich zu sein. Des Weiteren ergab die Betrachtung des γH2A.X-Spiegels nach Induktion von DNA-Schäden, dass α-Synuclein möglicherweise eine protektive Funktion besitzt, da dessen Überexpression zu einer verringerten und die Herunterregulation zu einer vermehrten DNA-Schädigung führte. Die Analyse der subzellulären Lokalisation von α-Synuclein ergab außerdem, dass es in jungen Zellen nach der Induktion von DNA-Schäden zu einer Translokation des Proteins in den Zellkern kommt. Diese Translokation war in seneszenten Zellen verringert. Dies lässt vermuten, dass α-Synuclein in jungen Zellen nach DNA-Schädigung durch den ERK1/2-MAPK-Signalweg hochreguliert wird und durch die Translokation in den Zellkern möglicherweise die Transkription von protektiven Genen beeinflusst oder an DNA-Reparatur-Prozessen beteiligt ist. In seneszenten Zellen ist das Protein zwar deutlich stärker exprimiert, der Transport in den Zellkern jedoch verringert, wodurch die protektive Wirkung im Zellkern herabgesetzt wäre.

Hit proteins, mitochondria and cancer

The histidine triad (HIT) superfamily comprises proteins that share the histidine triad motif, His-ϕ-His-ϕ-His-ϕ-ϕ, where ϕ is a hydrophobic amino acid. HIT proteins are ubiquitous in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. HIT proteins bind nucleotides and exert dinucleotidyl hydrolase, nucleotidylyl transferase or phosphoramidate hydrolase enzymatic activity. In humans, 5 families of HIT proteins are recognized. The accumulated epidemiological and experimental evidence indicates that two branches of the superfamily, the HINT (Histidine Triad Nucleotide Binding) members and FHIT (Fragile Histidine Triad), have tumor suppressor properties but a conclusive physiological role can still not be assigned to these proteins. Aprataxin forms another discrete branch of the HIT superfamily, is implicated in DNA repair mechanisms and unlike the HINT and FHIT members, a defective protein can be conclusively linked to a disease, ataxia with oculomotor apraxia type 1. The scavenger mRNA decapping enzyme, DcpS, forms a fourth branch of the HIT superfamily. Finally, the GalT enzymes, which exert specific nucleoside monophosphate transferase activity, form a fifth branch that is not implicated in tumorigenesis. The molecular mechanisms by which the HINT and FHIT proteins participate in bioenergetics of cancer are just beginning to be unraveled. Their purported actions as tumor suppressors are highlighted in this review.

Pabp binds to the osk 3'UTR and specifically contributes to osk mRNA stability and oocyte accumulation

RNA localization is tightly coordinated with RNA stability and translation control. Bicaudal-D (Bic-D), Egalitarian (Egl), microtubules and their motors are part of a Drosophila transport machinery that localizes mRNAs to specific cellular regions during oogenesis and embryogenesis. We identified the Poly(A)-binding protein (Pabp) as a protein that forms an RNA-dependent complex with Bic-D in embryos and ovaries. pabp also interacts genetically with Bic-D and, similar to Bic-D, pabp is essential in the germline for oocyte growth and accumulation of osk mRNA in the oocyte. In the absence of pabp, reduced stability of osk mRNA and possibly also defects in osk mRNA transport prevent normal oocyte localization of osk mRNA. pabp also interacts genetically with osk and lack of one copy of pabp(+) causes osk to become haploinsufficient. Moreover, pointing to a poly(A)-independent role, Pabp binds to A-rich sequences (ARS) in the osk 3'UTR and these turned out to be required in vivo for osk function during early oogenesis. This effect of pabp on osk mRNA is specific for this RNA and other tested mRNAs localizing to the oocyte are less and more indirectly affected by the lack of pabp

Risk factors and mechanisms of hepatocarcinogenesis with special emphasis on alcohol and oxidative stress

Hepatocellular cancer is the fifth most frequent cancer in men and the eighth in women worldwide. Established risk factors are chronic hepatitis B and C infection, chronic heavy alcohol consumption, obesity and type 2 diabetes, tobacco use, use of oral contraceptives, and aflatoxin-contaminated food. Almost 90% of all hepatocellular carcinomas develop in cirrhotic livers. In Western countries, attributable risks are highest for cirrhosis due to chronic alcohol abuse and viral hepatitis B and C infection. Among those with alcoholic cirrhosis, the annual incidence of hepatocellular cancer is 1-2%. An important mechanism implicated in alcohol-related hepatocarcinogenesis is oxidative stress from alcohol metabolism, inflammation, and increased iron storage. Ethanol-induced cytochrome P-450 2E1 produces various reactive oxygen species, leading to the formation of lipid peroxides such as 4-hydroxy-nonenal. Furthermore, alcohol impairs the antioxidant defense system, resulting in mitochondrial damage and apoptosis. Chronic alcohol exposure elicits hepatocyte hyperregeneration due to the activation of survival factors and interference with retinoid metabolism. Direct DNA damage results from acetaldehyde, which can bind to DNA, inhibit DNA repair systems, and lead to the formation of carcinogenic exocyclic DNA etheno adducts. Finally, chronic alcohol abuse interferes with methyl group transfer and may thereby alter gene expression.

Metabolism of nitro drugs metronidazole and nitazoxanide in Giardia lamblia: characterization of a novel nitroreductase (GlNR2).

OBJECTIVES The protozoan parasite Giardia lamblia causes giardiasis, a persistent diarrhoea. Nitro drugs such as the nitroimidazole metronidazole and the nitrothiazolide nitazoxanide are used for the treatment of giardiasis. Nitroreductases may play a role in activating these drugs. G. lamblia contains two nitroreductases, GlNR1 and GlNR2. The aim of this work was to elucidate the role of GlNR2. METHODS Expression of GlNR2 was analysed by reverse transcription PCR. Recombinant GlNR2 was overexpressed in G. lamblia and drug susceptibility was analysed. Recombinant GlNR2 was subjected to functional assays. Escherichia coli expressing full-length or truncated GlNR1 and GlNR2 were grown in the presence of nitro compounds. Using E. coli reporter strains for nitric oxide and DNA damage responses, we analysed whether GlNR1 and GlNR2 elicited the respective responses in the presence, or absence, of the drugs. RESULTS G. lamblia trophozoites overexpressing GlNR2 were less susceptible to both nitro drugs as compared with control trophozoites. GlNR2 was a functional nitroreductase when expressed in E. coli. E. coli expressing GlNR1 was more susceptible to metronidazole under aerobic and semi-aerobic and to nitazoxanide under semi-aerobic growth conditions. E. coli expressing GlNR2 was not susceptible to either drug. In reporter strains, GlNR1, but not GlNR2, elicited nitric oxide and DNA repair responses, even in the absence of nitro drugs. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that GlNR2 is an active nitroreductase with a mode of action different from that of GlNR1. Thus, susceptibility to nitro drugs may depend not only on activation, but also on inactivation of the drugs by specific nitroreductases.

ATM Signaling to TSC2: Mechanisms and Implications for Cancer Therapy

Ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM) is a critical component of the cellular response to DNA damage, where it acts as a damage sensor, and signals to a large network of proteins which execute the important tasks involved in responding to the damage, namely inducing cell cycle checkpoints, inducing DNA repair, modulating transcriptional responses, and regulating cell death pathways if the damage cannot be repaired faithfully. We have now discovered that an additional novel component of this ATM-dependent damage response involves induction of autophagy in response to oxidative stress. In contrast to DNA damage-induced ATM activation however, oxidative stress induced ATM, occurs in the cytoplasm, and does not require nuclear-to-cytoplasmic shuttling of ATM. Using several cell culture systems including MCF7 breast carcinoma cells, SKOV3 ovarian cancer cells, and various lineages of mouse embryonic fibroblasts, we showed that once activated by reactive oxygen species (ROS), ATM signals to mTORC1 to induce autophagy via the LKB1-AMPK-TSC2 pathway. Targeting dysregulation of mTORC1 in Atm-deficient mice, which succumb to lymphomagenesis within 3-4 months of age with daily administration of rapamycin, could significantly extend survival and cause regression of tumors, suggesting that pharmacologically targeting this pathway has therapeutic implications in cancer. We also identified a second contrasting pathway for DNA damage-induced mTORC1 repression which does not require AMPK activation, but does require ATM and TSC2. Several potential mechanisms including mTOR localization and p53-mediated pathways were ruled out however we identified that TSC2 may be an additional cytoplasmic direct ATM substrate that is engaged in response to DNA damage specifically. Lastly, a study was performed to examine whether autophagy induced by ovarian cancer therapeutics (focusing on cisplatin, since paclitaxel does not induce autophagy in the SKOV3 cell line model we used) plays a role in resistance to therapy since autophagy can play both pro-survival mechanisms or be a mechanism of cell death. Using a genetic approach to knock-down Atg5 expression with shRNA in SKOV3 ovarian carcinoma cells, we compared the cytotoxicity of cisplatin in vector or Atg5 knock-down cells, and demonstrated that autophagy does not play any significant role in the response to cisplatin in this cell line.

Dissecting the Interaction between p53 and TRIM24

Dissecting the Interaction of p53 and TRIM24 Aundrietta DeVan Duncan Supervisory Professor, Michelle Barton, Ph.D. p53, the “guardian of the genome”, plays an important role in multiple biological processes including cell cycle, angiogenesis, DNA repair and apoptosis. Because it is mutated in over 50% of cancers, p53 has been widely studied in established cancer cell lines. However, little is known about the function of p53 in a normal cell. We focused on characterizing p53 in normal cells and during differentiation. Our lab recently identified a novel binding partner of p53, Tripartite Motif 24 protein (TRIM24). TRIM24 is a member of the TRIM family of proteins, defined by their conserved RING, B-box, and coiled coil domains. Specifically, TRIM24 is a member of the TIF1 subfamily, which is characterized by PHD and Bromo domains in the C-terminus. Between the Coiled-coil and PHD domain is a linker region, 437 amino acids in length. This linker region houses important functions of TRIM24 including it’s site of interaction with nuclear receptors. TRIM24 is an E3-ubiquitin ligase, recently discovered to negatively regulate p53 by targeting it for degradation. Though it is known that Trim24 and p53 interact, it is not known if the interaction is direct and what effect this interaction has on the function of TRIM24 and p53. My study aims to elucidate the specific interaction domains of p53 and TRIM24. To determine the specific domains of p53 required for interaction with TRIM24, we performed co-immuoprecipitation (Co-IP) with recombinant full-length Flag-tagged TRIM24 protein and various deletion constructs of in vitro translated GST-p53, as well as the reverse. I found that TRIM24 binds both the carboxy terminus and DNA binding domain of p53. Furthermore, my results show that binding is altered when post-translational modifications of p53 are present, suggesting that the interaction between p53 and TRIM24 may be affected by these post-translational modifications. To determine the specific domains of TRIM24 required for p53 interaction, we performed GST pull-downs with in vitro translated, Flag-TRIM24 protein constructs and recombinant GST-p53 protein purified from E. coli. We found that the Linker region is sufficient for interaction of p53 and TRIM24. Taken together, these data indicate that the interaction between p53 and TRIM24 does occur in vitro and that interaction may be influenced by post-translational modifications of the proteins.

The multifunctional FUS protein: Characterization of the biological effects of its depletion

FUS/TLS (fused in sarcoma/translocated in liposarcoma) protein, a ubiquitously expressed RNA-binding protein, has been linked to a variety of cellular processes, such as RNA metabolism, microRNA biogenesis and DNA repair. However, the precise role of FUS protein remains unclear. Recently, FUS has been linked to Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the dysfunction and death of motor neurons. Based on the observation that some mutations in the FUS gene induce cytoplasmic accumulation of FUS aggregates, we decided to explore a loss-of-function situation (i.e. inhibition of FUS’ nuclear function) to unravel the role of this protein. To this purpose, we have generated a SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cell line which expresses a doxycycline induced shRNA targeting FUS and that specifically depletes the protein. In order to characterize this cell line, we have performed a whole transcriptome analysis by RNA deep sequencing. Preliminary results show that FUS depletion affects both expression and alternative splicing levels of several RNAs. When FUS is depleted we observed 330 downregulated and 81 upregulated genes. We also found that 395 splicing isoforms were downregulated, while 426 were upregulated. Currently, we are focusing our attention on the pathways which are mostly affected by FUS depletion. In addition, to further characterize the FUS-depleted cell line we have performed growth proliferation and survival assays. From these experiments emerge that FUS-depleted cells display growth proliferation alteration. In order to explain this observation, we have tested different hypothesis (e.g. apoptosis, senescence or slow-down growth). We observed that FUS-depleted cells growth slower than controls. Currently, we are looking for putative candidate targets causing this phenotype. Finally, since MEFs and B-lymphocytes derived from FUS knockdown mice display major sensitivity to ionizing radiation and chromosomal aberrations [1,2], we are exploring the effects of DNA damage in FUS-depleted cells by monitoring important components of DNA Damage Response (DDR). Taken together, these studies may contribute to our knowledge of the role of FUS in these cellular processes and will allow us to draw a clearer picture of mechanisms of neurodegenerative diseases.

A Drosophila XPD model links cell cycle coordination with neuro-development and suggests links to cancer

XPD functions in transcription, DNA repair and in cell cycle control. Mutations in human XPD (also known as ERCC2) mainly cause three clinical phenotypes: xeroderma pigmentosum (XP), Cockayne syndrome (XP/CS) and trichothiodystrophy (TTD), and only XP patients have a high predisposition to developing cancer. Hence, we developed a fly model to obtain novel insights into the defects caused by individual hypomorphic alleles identified in human XP-D patients. This model revealed that the mutations that displayed the greatest in vivo UV sensitivity in Drosophila did not correlate with those that led to tumor formation in humans. Immunoprecipitations followed by targeted quantitative MS/MS analysis showed how different xpd mutations affected the formation or stability of different transcription factor IIH (TFIIH) subcomplexes. The XP mutants most clearly linked to high cancer risk, Xpd R683W and R601L, showed a reduced interaction with the core TFIIH and also an abnormal interaction with the Cdk-activating kinase (CAK) complex. Interestingly, these two XP alleles additionally displayed high levels of chromatin loss and free centrosomes during the rapid nuclear division phase of the Drosophila embryo. Finally, the xpd mutations showing defects in the coordination of cell cycle timing during the Drosophila embryonic divisions correlated with those human mutations that cause the neurodevelopmental abnormalities and developmental growth defects observed in XP/CS and TTD patients.

The gene for histone RNA hairpin binding protein is located on human chromosome 4 and encodes a novel type of RNA binding protein.

The hairpin structure at the 3' end of animal histone mRNAs controls histone RNA 3' processing, nucleocytoplasmic transport, translation and stability of histone mRNA. Functionally overlapping, if not identical, proteins binding to the histone RNA hairpin have been identified in nuclear and polysomal extracts. Our own results indicated that these hairpin binding proteins (HBPs) bind their target RNA as monomers and that the resulting ribonucleoprotein complexes are extremely stable. These features prompted us to select for HBP-encoding human cDNAs by RNA-mediated three-hybrid selection in Saccharomyces cerevesiae. Whole cell extract from one selected clone contained a Gal4 fusion protein that interacted with histone hairpin RNA in a sequence- and structure-specific manner similar to a fraction enriched for bovine HBP, indicating that the cDNA encoded HBP. DNA sequence analysis revealed that the coding sequence did not contain any known RNA binding motifs. The HBP gene is composed of eight exons covering 19.5 kb on the short arm of chromosome 4. Translation of the HBP open reading frame in vitro produced a 43 kDa protein with RNA binding specificity identical to murine or bovine HBP. In addition, recombinant HBP expressed in S. cerevisiae was functional in histone pre-mRNA processing, confirming that we have indeed identified the human HBP gene.

Function and regulation of the Pem homeobox gene in vivo

Pem, a member of the PEPP homeobox family, is expressed in somatic cells in male and female reproductive tissues. In the adult murine testis, Pem is specifically expressed in Sertoli cells, where it is restricted to stages IV–VIII of the seminiferous epithelial cycle. To identify Pem's function in Sertoli cells, transgenic mice were generated that express Pem in Sertoli cells during all stages of the seminiferous epithelial cycle. This resulted in an increase in double-strand DNA breaks in preleptotene spermatocytes and single-strand DNA breaks in elongating spermatids. My results suggest that Pem regulates Sertoli-cell genes that encode secreted or cell-surface proteins that serve to control premeiotic DNA replication, DNA repair, and/or chromatin remodeling in the adjacent germ cells. Three additional transgenic mouse containing varying lengths of the Pem male-specific promoter (Pp) were generated to identify the sequences responsible for regulating Pem expression in the testis and epididymis. My analysis suggests that there are at least two regulatory regions in the Pem Pp. In the testis, region II directs androgen-dependent expression specifically in Sertoli cells whereas region I fine-tunes stage-specific expression by acting as a negative regulator. In the epididymis, region II confers androgen-dependent, developmentally-regulated expression in the caput whereas region I prevents inappropriate expression in the corpus. I also report the identification and characterization of two human PEPP family members related to Pem that I have named hPEPP1 and hPEPP2. The hPEPP1 and hPEPP2 homeodomains are more closely related to PEPP subfamily homeodomains than to any other homeodomain subfamily. Both genes are localized to the specific region of the human X chromosome that shares synteny with the region on the murine X chromosome containing three PEPP homeobox genes, Pem, Psx-1, and Psx-2. hPEPP1 and hPEPP2 mRNA expression is restricted to the testis but is aberrantly expressed in tumor cells of different origins, analogous to the expression pattern of Pem but not of Psx-1 or Psx-2. Unlike all known PEPP members, neither hPEPP1 nor hPEPP2 are expressed in placenta, which suggests that the regulation of the PEPP family has undergone significant alteration since the split between hominids and rodents. ^

The connection between E2F and ATM in p53-dependent apoptosis

Programmed cell death is an anticancer mechanism utilized by p53 that when disrupted can accelerate tumor development in response to oncogenic stress. Defects in the RB tumor suppressor cause aberrant cell proliferation as well as apoptosis. The combinatorial loss of the p53 and RB pathways is observed in a large percentage of human tumors. The E2F family of transcription factors primarily mediates the phenotype of Rb loss, since RB is a negative regulator of E2F. Contrary to early expectations, it has now been shown that the ARF (alternative reading frame) tumor suppressor is not required for p53-dependent apoptosis in response to deregulation of the RB/E2F pathway. In this study, we demonstrate that ATM, known as a DNA double-strand break (DSB) sensor, is responsible for ARF-independent apoptosis and p53 activation induced by deregulated E2F1. Moreover, NBS1, a component of the MRN DNA repair complex, is also required for E2F1-induced apoptosis and apparently works in the same pathway as ATM. We further found that endogenous E2F1 and E2F3 both play a role in apoptosis and ATM activation in response to inhibition of RB by the adenoviral E1A oncoprotein. We demonstrate that, unlike deregulated E2F3 and Myc, ATM activation by deregulated E2F1 does not involve the induction of DNA damage, autophosphorylation of ATM on Ser 1981, a marker of ATM activation by DSB, but does depend on the presence of NBS1, suggesting that E2F1 activates ATM in a different manner from E2F3 and Myc. Results from domain mapping studies show that the DNA binding, dimerization, and marked box domains of E2F1 are required to activate ATM and stimulate apoptosis but the transactivation domain is not. This implies that E2F1's DNA binding and interaction with other proteins through the marked box domain are necessary to induce ATM activation leading to apoptosis but transcriptional activation by E2F1 is dispensable. Together these data suggest a model in which E2F1 activates ATM to phosphorylate p53 through a novel mechanism that is independent of DNA damage and transcriptional activation by E2F1.^