(Table 1) Alkenone concentration, UK'37 index and derived sea surface temperatures for ODP Site 167-1020

Uk'37 sea-surface temperature (SST) estimates obtained at ~2.5-k.y. resolution from Ocean Drilling Program Site 1020 show glacial-interglacial cyclicity with an amplitude of 7°-10°C over the last 780 k.y. This record shows a similar pattern of variability to another alkenone-based SST record obtained previously from the Santa Barbara Basin. Both records show that oxygen isotope Stage (OIS) 5.5 was warmer by ~3°C relative to the present and that glacial Uk'37 temperatures warm in advance of deglaciation, as inferred from benthic d18O records. The alkenone-based SST record at Site 1020 is longer than previously published work along the California margin. We show that warmer than present interglacial stages have occurred frequently during the last 800 k.y. Alkenone concentrations, a proxy for coccolithophorid productivity, indicate that sedimentary marine organic carbon content has also varied significantly over this interval, with higher contents during interglacial periods. A baseline shift to warmer SST and greater alkenone content occurs before OIS 13. We compare our results with those from previous multiproxy studies in this region and conclude that SST has increased by ~5°C since the last glacial period (21 ka). Our data show that maximum alkenone SSTs occur simultaneously with minimum ice volume at Site 1020, which is consistent with data from farther south along the margin. The presence of sea ice in the glacial northeast Pacific, the extent of which is inferred from locations of ice-rafted debris, provides further support for our notion of cold surface water within the northern California Current system, averaging 7°-8°C cooler during peak glacial conditions. The cooling of surface water during glacial stages most likely did not result from enhanced upwelling because alkenone concentrations and terrestrial redwood pollen assemblages are consistently lower during glacial periods.

Sea surface temperature (TEX86), marine GDGTs and BIT index from ODP Hole 161-977A

The TEX86H temperature proxy is a relatively new proxy based on crenarchaeotal lipids and has rarely been applied together with other temperature proxies. In this study, we applied the TEX86H on a sediment core from the Alboran Sea (western Mediterranean, core ODP-977A) covering the penultimate climate cycle, that is, from 244 to 130 ka, and compared this with previously published sea surface temperatures derived from the Uk'37 of alkenones of haptophyta and Mg/Ca records of planktonic foraminifera. The TEX86H temperature record shows remarkably similar stadial-interstadial patterns and abrupt temperature changes to those observed with the Uk'37 palaeothermometer. Absolute TEX86H temperature estimates are generally higher than those of Uk'37, though this difference (<3°C in 81% of the data points) is mainly within the temperature calibration error for both proxies, suggesting that crenarchaeota and haptophyta experienced similar temperature variations. During occasional events (<5% of the analyzed time span), however, the TEX86H exhibits considerably higher absolute temperature estimates than the Uk'37. Comparison with Mg/Ca records of planktonic foraminifera as well as other Mediterranean TEX86 and Uk'37 records suggests that part of this divergence may be attributed to seasonal differences, that is, with TEX86H reflecting mainly the warm summer season while Uk'37 would show annual mean. Biases in the global calibration of both proxies or specific biases in the Mediterranean are an alternative, though less likely, explanation. Despite differences between absolute TEX86H and Uk'37 temperatures, the correlation between the two proxies (r**2 = 0.59, 95% significance) provides support for the occurrence of abrupt temperature variations in the western Mediterranean during the penultimate interglacial-to-glacial cycle.

(Table 1) Age determination of sediment core PC17

We have investigated glacial-interglacial differences in sea surface temperature (SST) near Hawaii using two relatively high deposition rate, shallow-water piston cores collected near Oahu, Hawaii. Modern hydrographic data show that local surface water temperatures are broadly consistent with the regional pattern of SSTs in the southern subtropical North Pacific. Past SSTs were estimated on the basis of three independently measured parameters: (1) UK'37 values of alkenones, (2) d18O of Globigerinoides ruber, and (3) assemblages of planktonic foraminifera using the modern analog technique (MAT). The two cores yield similar SST records, and if differences in the ecology of foraminifera and coccolithophores are considered, the three different approaches to estimating SSTs yield consistent results. UK'37-based temperatures, which may represent winter values at this location, were ~2.5°C colder during the Last Glacial Maximum than today, which is consistent with the February MAT estimates. The d18O-based temperature estimates, likely biased toward summer temperatures, indicate that the glacial SSTs were at least 1°C cooler than today, which is comparable to the results of MAT August estimates.

Paleoceanographical studies of MIS 11 for sediment core MD99-2277

Paleoceanographical studies of Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 11 have revealed higher-than-present sea surface temperatures (SSTs) in the North Atlantic and in parts of the Arctic, but lower-than-present SSTs in the Nordic Seas, the main throughflow-area of warm water into the Arctic Ocean. We resolve this contradiction by complementing SST data based on planktic foraminiferal abundances with surface salinity changes using hydrogen isotopic compositions of alkenones in a core from the central Nordic Seas. The data indicate the prevalence of a relatively cold, low-salinity, surface water layer in the Nordic Seas during most of MIS 11. In spite of the low-density surface layer, which was kept buoyant by continuous melting of surrounding glaciers, warmer Atlantic water was still propagating northward at the subsurface thus maintaining meridional overturning circulation. This study can help to better constrain the impact of continuous melting of Greenland and Arctic ice on high-latitude ocean circulation and climate.

Sea surface temperatures reconstructed from sediment core U1338

This study presents a new alkenone-derived Sea Surface Temperature (SST) record and d18ONoelaerhabdaceae data of the 2-5 µm carbonate fractions from the IODP site U1338 located in the Eastern Equatorial Pacific (EEP), over the Miocene-Pliocene. Our data and those available from other sites of the same area show the establishment of a cold tongue during the early Pliocene (4.4 - 3.6 Ma). SST and d18ONoelaerhabdaceae time-series indicate periods of significant salinity variations. Comparison with the d18Obenthic curve from sediment cores of the Equatorial Pacific Ocean allow us to distinguish between global changes and local surface salinity variations in the EEP. Ice sheet growth and evaporation-precipitation are then discussed as possible drivers of such changes, as well as the role of Central American and the Indonesian seaway restriction. Our data suggest a shallowing of the thermocline in the EEP, between 6.8 and 6 Ma, and its shoaling between 4.8 and 4.0 Ma, suggesting the appearance of the cold tongue (Steph et al., 2010). The Pliocene climate transition would therefore not be primarily driven by Northern hemisphere glaciation.

Age model and chemistry of sediment core STK7 from Steisslinger See

Stable isotope records for carbon and oxygen in bulk carbonates, carbon in bulk organic matter, and for total and chromium-reducible sulfur in a lacustrine sediment core from Lake Steisslingen (Southwest Germany) show several distinct and abrupt shifts during the last 15,000 years. Variations in the isotopic composition of authigenic carbonates indicate two major phases in the lake history. In the pre-Holocene, the hydrological budget of the lake was apparently stable. Variations of delta18O values of authigenic carbonates were, therefore, dominantly controlled by temperature changes. A decrease in the delta18Ocarb values of about 2 per mil at the Allerød/Younger Dryas transition is interpreted as a drop in mean annual air temperatures of approximately 5°C. An abrupt temperature increase of a similar magnitude is inferred at the Younger Dryas/Preboreal boundary. Throughout most of the Holocene, the isotopic composition of authigenic carbonates was influenced by marked changes in the hydrological budget of the lake. A major positive excursion in the delta13Ccarb and delta18Ocarb values at the beginning of the Atlantic and a smaller one in the Preboreal were related to evaporation effects, which indicate that dry climatic conditions must have prevailed at that time. A simultaneous increase in delta13C values of bulk organic matter at the beginning of the Atlantic suggests a high level of productivity in the lake. As a consequence, aqueous sulfate became limited as indicated by variations in the delta34S values of total and chromium-reducible sedimentary sulfur. Therefore, we conclude that the beginning of the Atlantic was characterized not only by dry but also by warm climatic conditions, which triggered a higher productivity in the lake. In the Subatlantic sediments, large variations in carbon, oxygen, and sulfur isotope ratios were observed as a result of human activities, causing considerable perturbations in the biogeochemical element cycling of Lake Steisslingen. Results obtained by the study of the continuous 15 ka record of Lake Steisslingen document clearly that isotopic proxy data from lacustrine sediments can provide useful information on environmental and climatic changes of local, regional, and in the case of the Younger Dryas event, of even hemispherical significance.

Bulk and molecular proxies of sediment core GeoB6518-1

A 20 kyr long sediment sequence from the Congo deep sea fan (core GeoB 6518-1), one of the world's largest deep sea river fans, has been analysed for bulk and molecular proxies in order to reconstruct the marine, soil and plant organic carbon (OC) contributions to these sediments since the last glacial maximum. The bulk proxies applied, C/N ratio and d13Corg, ranged from 10 to 12.5 and from -24.5 to -21 per mill VPDB, respectively. As molecular proxies, concentrations of marine derived alkenones and terrestrial derived odd-numbered n-alkanes were used, which varied between 0.2 and 4 µg/g dry weight sediment. In addition, the branched vs. isoprenoid tetraether (BIT) index, a proxy for soil organic matter input, was used, which varied from 0.3 to 0.5 in this core. Application of binary mixing models, based on the different individual proxies, showed estimates for terrestrial OC input varying by up to 50% due to the heterogeneous nature of the OC. Application of a three end-member mixing model using the d13Corg content, the C/N ratio and the BIT index, enabled the distinction of soil and plant organic matter as separate contributors to the sedimentary OC pool. The results show that marine OC accounts for 20% to 40% of the total OC present in the deep sea fan sediments over the last 20 kyr and that soil OC accounts for about half (45% on average) of the OC present. This suggests that soil OC represents the majority of the terrestrial OC delivered to the fan sediments. Accumulation rates of the plant and soil OC fractions over the last 20 kyr varied by a factor of up to 5, and are strongly related to sediment accumulation rates. They showed an increase starting at ca. 17 kyr BP, a decline during the Younger Dryas, peak values during the early Holocene and lower values in the late Holocene. This pattern matches with reconstructions of past central African humidity and Congo River discharge from the same core and revealed that central African precipitation patterns exert a dominant control on terrestrial OC deposition in the Congo deep sea fan. Marine OC accumulation rates are only weakly related to sediment accumulation rates and vary only little over time compared to the terrigenous fractions. These variations are likely a result of enhanced preservation during times of higher sedimentation rates and of relative small fluctuations in primary production due to wind-driven upwelling.

Tab. I: Alkenon analyses on sample material of cores Krummland KR-1 und Dagebüll DA-1

Geochemical studies of organic "biomarker" compounds were applied to Eemian sediments cored at Dagebuell (DA-1) on the west coast, and at Krummland (KR-1) in the east of the Baltic Zone of Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. 10 samples from the early stage of the Eemian Transgression to the high Eem at Krummland, and 24 samples from the peak and late phases of the Eemian at Dagebuell provide new insights on the development of the Eemian Sea in the region. C37-C39-ethyl- and methyl-ketones in the Krummland sediments indicated unstable conditions at the onset of the marine trangression, and freshwater influence in keeping with their shallow nearshore environment. In the Dagebuell deposits, patterns typical of marine to brackish conditions were observed, comparable to those found today in the Skagerrak and Belt Sea areas. The sea-surface temperatures estimated from the alkenone unsaturation ratio UK37 at DA-1 corroborate the evidence from "standard" faunal and pollen assemblages, and lithological successions. Here, the temperature maximum attained in pollen assemblage zone PAZ Illc, indicates the early onset of very warm conditions, preceding the highest sea level of the penultimate interglacial by 8,000 years, based on previously published U/Th ages.

(Table S1) Age determination ofs ediment cores of the Azores Current System

In order to test the sensitivity of marine primary productivity in the midlatitude open ocean North Atlantic to changes in the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC), we investigated two spliced sediment cores from a site south of the Azores Islands at the northern rim of the North Atlantic subtropical gyre. For this purpose we analyzed coccolithophore assemblages, diatom abundances, alkenones and conducted X-ray fluorescence (XRF) core scanning. During times of reduced AMOC, especially during Heinrich event 1 (H1) and the Younger Dryas, we observe a strong increase in productivity as evidenced by high coccolith accumulation rates, high alkenone concentrations/accumulation rates, high Ba/Ti-ratios, high abundances of diatoms and low abundances ofF. profunda. The increased productivity is partly caused by a more southern position of the Azores Front (AzF), and hence by a less northward extension of the subtropical gyre, as deduced from high abundances of the temperate coccolithophore species G. muellerae and low abundances of subtropical species (Oolithotus spp., Umbellosphaera spp., Umbilicosphaeraspp.). However, to explain the full range of the observed productivity increase, other factors like increased westerly winds and advection of nutrient-rich surface waters have also to be considered. Because this pattern can also be observed in other sediment cores from the midlatitude North Atlantic, we propose that during times of reduced AMOC there has been a band of strongly increased productivity across the North Atlantic at the northern rim of the contracted subtropical gyre, which partly counteracts the decreased organic carbon pump in the high northern latitudes.

Ogranic geochemistry and SST reconstruction for Pliocene and Miocene Madeira Abyssal Plain turbidites

Free and "bound" long-chain alkenones (C37?2 and C37?3) in oxidized and unoxidized sections of four organic matter-rich Pliocene and Miocene Madeira Abyssal Plain turbidites (one from Ocean Drilling Program site 951B and three from site 952A) were analyzed to determine the effect of severe post depositional oxidation on the value of Uk'37. The profiles of both alkenones across the redox boundary show a preferential degradation of the C37?3 compared to the C37?2 compound. Because of the high initial Uk'37 values and the way of calculating the Uk'37 this degradation hardly influences the Uk'37 profiles. However, for lower Uk'37 values, measured selective degradation would increase Uk'37 up to 0.17 units, equivalent to 5°C. For most of the Uk'37 band-width, much smaller degradation already increases Uk'37 beyond the analytical error (0.017 units). Consequently, for interpreting the Uk'37 record in terms of past sea surface temperatures, selective degradation needs serious consideration.

Particle fluxes of the bathypelagic sediment trap CVOO-3 in the eastern tropical North Atlantic for the period December 2009 until May 2011

Particle fluxes at the Cape Verde Ocean Observatory (CVOO) in the eastern tropical North Atlantic for the period December 2009 until May 2011 are discussed based on bathypelagic sediment trap time-series data collected at 1290 and 3439 m water depth. The typically oligotrophic particle flux pattern with weak seasonality is modified by the appearance of a highly productive and low oxygen (minimum concentration below 2 µmol kg**-1 at 40 m depth) anticyclonic modewater eddy (ACME) in winter 2010. The eddy passage was accompanied by unusually high mass fluxes of up to 151 mg m**-2 d**-1, lasting from December 2009 to May 2010. Distinct biogenic silica (BSi) and organic carbon flux peaks of ~15 and 13.3 mg m**-2 d**-1, respectively, were observed in February-March 2010 when the eddy approached the CVOO. The flux of the lithogenic component, mostly mineral dust, was well correlated with that of organic carbon, in particular in the deep trap samples, suggesting a tight coupling. The lithogenic ballasting obviously resulted in high particle settling rates and, thus, a fast transfer of epi-/meso-pelagic signatures to the bathypelagic traps. We suspect that the two- to three-fold increase in particle fluxes with depth as well as the tight coupling of mineral dust and organic carbon in the deep trap samples might be explained by particle focusing processes within the deeper part of the eddy. Molar C : N ratios of organic matter during the ACME passage were around 18 and 25 for the upper and lower trap samples, respectively. This suggests that some productivity under nutrient (nitrate) limitation occurred in the euphotic zone of the eddy in the beginning of 2010 or that a local nitrogen recycling took place. The d15N record showed a decrease from 5.21 to 3.11 per mil from January to March 2010, while the organic carbon and nitrogen fluxes increased. The causes of enhanced sedimentation from the eddy in February/March 2010 remain elusive, but nutrient depletion and/or an increased availability of dust as a ballast mineral for organic-rich aggregates might have contributed. Rapid remineralisation of sinking organic-rich particles could have contributed to oxygen depletion at shallow depth. Although the eddy formed in the West African coastal area in summer 2009, no indications of coastal flux signatures (e.g. from diatoms) were found in the sediment trap samples, confirming the assumption that the suboxia developed within the eddy en route. However, we could not detect biomarkers indicative of the presence of anammox (anaerobic ammonia oxidation) bacteria or green sulfur bacteria thriving in photic zone suboxia/hypoxia, i.e. ladderane fatty acids and isorenieratene derivatives, respectively. This could indicate that suboxic conditions in the eddy had recently developed and/or the respective bacterial stocks had not yet reached detection thresholds. Another explanation is that the fast-sinking organic-rich particles produced in the surface layer did not interact with bacteria from the suboxic zone below. Carbonate fluxes dropped from -52 to 21.4 mg m**-2 d**-1 from January to February 2010, respectively, mainly due to reduced contribution of shallow-dwelling planktonic foraminifera and pteropods. The deep-dwelling foraminifera Globorotalia menardii, however, showed a major flux peak in February 2010, most probably due to the suboxia/hypoxia. The low oxygen conditions forced at least some zooplankton to reduce diel vertical migration. Reduced "flux feeding" by zooplankton in the epipelagic could have contributed to the enhanced fluxes of organic materials to the bathypelagic traps during the eddy passage. Further studies are required on eddy-induced particle production and preservation processes and particle focusing.

(Table 1) Average sea surface temperature, average sea surface salinity, C37 concentration, palmitic acid concentration, Uk'37, C37/C38 ratio, dD of water, dD of C37 and dD of palmitic acid of water samples from a transect across the Amazon Plume

The stable hydrogen isotope composition of lipid biomarkers, such as alkenones, is a promising new tool for the improvement of palaeosalinity reconstructions. Laboratory studies confirmed the correlation between lipid biomarker dD composition (dDLipid), water dD composition (dDH2O) and salinity; yet there is limited insight into the applicability of this proxy in oceanic environments. To fill this gap, we test the use of the dD composition of alkenones (dDC37) and palmitic acid (dDPA) as salinity proxies using samples of surface suspended material along the distinct salinity gradient induced by the Amazon Plume. Our results indicate a positive correlation between salinity and dDH2O, while the relationship between dDH2O and dDLipid is more complex: dDPAM correlates strongly with dDH2O (r2 = 0.81) and shows a salinity-dependent isotopic fractionation factor. dDC37 only correlates with dDH2O in a small number (n = 8) of samples with alkenone concentrations > 10 ng L**-1, while there is no correlation if all samples are taken into account. These findings are mirrored by alkenone-based temperature reconstructions, which are inaccurate for samples with low alkenone concentrations. Deviations in dDC37 and temperature are likely to be caused by limited haptophyte algae growth due to low salinity and light limitation imposed by the Amazon Plume. Our study confirms the applicability of dDLipid as a salinity proxy in oceanic environments. But it raises a note of caution concerning regions where low alkenone production can be expected due to low salinity and light limitation, for instance, under strong riverine discharge.

(Table T1) Carbon contents, alkenone concentrations, alkenone unsaturation index, and SST in sediments of ODP Leg 190 sites

We have preliminarily generated the downcore records of total organic carbon (TOC) content, total alkenone concentration, alkenone unsaturation index, and the estimated sea-surface temperature (SST) in the northern three sites (Sites 1175, 1176, and 1178) of the Muroto Transect, Nankai Trough. The TOC content will be used for the evaluation of the burial of organic matter, which plays a role in the generation of natural gas and the formation of gas hydrate in this region. The downcore records of alkenone SST will benefit studies for the paleoceanography of the northwestern Pacific. Because those sites are located in the main path of the Kuroshio Current, the records provide the temperature change of the Kuroshio water, which is an end-member water mass in the northwestern Pacific.

Climate variability of the last 1000 years in the NW Pacific: high resolution, multi-biomarker records from Lake Toyoni

The East Asian Monsoon (EAM) is an active component of the global climate system and has a profound social and economic impact in East Asia and its surrounding countries. Its impact on regional hydrological processes may influence society through industrial water supplies, food productivity and energy use. In order to predict future rates of climate change, reliable and accurate reconstructions of regional temperature and rainfall are required from all over the world to test climate models and better predict future climate variability. Hokkaido is a region which has limited palaeo-climate data and is sensitive to climate change. Instrumental data show that the climate in Hokkaido is influenced by the East Asian Monsoon (EAM), however, instrumental data is limited to the past ~150 years. Therefore down-core climate reconstructions, prior to instrumental records, are required to provide a better understanding of the long-term behaviour of the climate drivers (e.g. the EAM, Westerlies, and teleconnections) in this region. The present study develops multi-proxy reconstructions to determine past climatic and hydrologic variability in Japan over the past 1000 years and aid in understanding the effects of the EAM and the Westerlies independently and interactively. A 250-cm long sediment core from Lake Toyoni, Hokkaido was retrieved to investigate terrestrial and aquatic input, lake temperature and hydrological changes over the past 1000-years within Lake Toyoni and its catchment using X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) data, alkenone palaeothermometry, the molecular and hydrogen isotopic composition of higher plant waxes (δD(HPW)). Here, we conducted the first survey for alkenone biomarkers in eight lakes in the Hokkaido, Japan. We detected the occurrence of alkenones within the sediments of Lake Toyoni. We present the first lacustrine alkenone record from Japan, including genetic analysis of the alkenone producer. C37 alkenone concentrations in surface sediments are 18µg C37 g−1 of dry sediment and the dominant alkenone is C37:4. 18S rDNA analysis revealed the presence of a single alkenone producer in Lake Toyoni and thus a single calibration is used for reconstructing lake temperature based on alkenone unsaturation patterns. Temperature reconstructions over the past 1000 years suggest that lake water temperatures varies between 8 and 19°C which is in line with water temperature changes observed in the modern Lake Toyoni. The alkenone-based temperature reconstruction provides evidence for the variability of the EAM over the past 1000 years. The δD(HPW) suggest that the large fluctuations (∼40‰) represent changes in temperature and source precipitation in this region, which is ultimately controlled by the EAM system and therefore a proxy for the EAM system. In order to complement the biomarker reconstructions, the XRF data strengthen the lake temperature and hydrological reconstructions by providing information on past productivity, which is controlled by the East Asian Summer monsoon (EASM) and wind input into Lake Toyoni, which is controlled by the East Asian Winter Monsoon (EAWM) and the Westerlies. By combining the data generated from XRF, alkenone palaeothermometry and the δD(HPW) reconstructions, we provide valuable information on the EAM and the Westerlies, including; the timing of intensification and weakening, the teleconnections influencing them and the relationship between them. During the Medieval Warm Period (MWP), we find that the EASM dominated and the EAWM was suppressed, whereas, during the Little Ice Age (LIA), the influence of the EAWM dominated with time periods of increased EASM and Westerlies intensification. The El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) significantly influenced the EAM; a strong EASM occurred during El Niño conditions and a strong EAWM occurred during La Niña. The North Atlantic Oscillation, on the other hand, was a key driver of the Westerlies intensification; strengthening of the Westerlies during a positive NAO phase and weakening of the Westerlies during a negative NAO phase. A key finding from this study is that our data support an anti-phase relationship between the EASM and the EAWM (e.g. the intensification of the EASM and weakening of the EAWM and vice versa) and that the EAWM and the Westerlies vary independently from each other, rather than coincide as previously suggested in other studies.