Evaluation of Sexual Dimorphism in the Efficacy and Safety of Simvastatin/Atorvastatin Therapy in a Southern Brazilian Cohort

Background: Dyslipidemia is the primary risk factor for cardiovascular disease, and statins have been effective in controlling lipid levels. Sex differences in the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of statins contribute to interindividual variations in drug efficacy and toxicity. Objective: To evaluate the presence of sexual dimorphism in the efficacy and safety of simvastatin/atorvastatin treatment. Methods: Lipid levels of 495 patients (331 women and 164 men) were measured at baseline and after 6 ± 3 months of simvastatin/atorvastatin treatment to assess the efficacy and safety profiles of both drugs. Results: Women had higher baseline levels of total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) compared with men (p < 0.0001). After treatment, women exhibited a greater decrease in plasma TC and LDL-C levels compared with men. After adjustment for covariates, baseline levels of TC and LDL-C influenced more than 30% of the efficacy of lipid-lowering therapy (p < 0.001), regardless of sex. Myalgia [with or without changes in creatine phosphokinase (CPK) levels] occurred more frequently in women (25.9%; p = 0.002), whereas an increase in CPK and/or abnormal liver function was more frequent in in men (17.9%; p = 0.017). Conclusions: Our results show that baseline TC and LDL-C levels are the main predictors of simvastatin/atorvastatin therapy efficacy, regardless of sex. In addition, they suggest the presence of sexual dimorphism in the safety of simvastatin/atorvastatin. The effect of sex differences on receptors, transporter proteins, and gene expression pathways needs to be better evaluated and characterized to confirm these observations.

Auswirkungen von interindividueller Variabilität dopaminerger Neuromodulation auf kortikale und subkortikale Mechanismen bei menschlichen Lernprozessen

Dopamin, Substantia nigra, Gedächtnis, Hippocampus, funktionelle Magnetresonanztomographie, Genetik, Polymorphismus, Dopamin-Transporter, Catechol-O-Methyltransferase, Altern, Morbus Parkinson

Charakterisierung und funktionelle Analyse eines ABC-Promotors aus Solanum tuberosum

Pflanzen können Pathogene anhand von PAMPs erkennen und komplexe Abwehrmechanismen aktivieren, die zur Ausprägung der PTI führen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden PAMP-induzierte Abwehrreaktionen zwischen Solanum tuberosum und Phytophthora infestans untersucht. Der Oomycet P. infestans ist der Erreger der Kraut- und Knolenfäule, der wichtigsten und wirtschaftlich bedeutendsten Krankheit der Kartoffel. Die Behandlung der anfälligen Sorte Désirée mit dem Phytophthora-spezifischen PAMP Pep-13 führt zu einer starken lokalen Abwehrantwort, die zu einer systemischen Resistenz führt. In Microarray-Analysen wurden mehr als 700 Gene identifiziert, die durch Pep-13 aktiviert werden. Der Promotor eines dieser Gene, das für einen ABCG-Halb-Transporter kodiert, sollte im Rahmen der Arbeit charakterisiert und auf seine Aktivität untersucht werden. Zunächst wurde eine ~2 kb große Promotor-Region des ABC-Transporters aus S. tuberosum (StpABC) kloniert und mehrere Klone sequenziert. Dabei konnte eine Sequenzhomologie von 94% zum nicht annotierten Kartoffelgenom von Solanum phurejia festgestellt werden. Zur weiteren Charakterisierung der StpABC-Region wurde eine in silico Sequenzanalyse durchgeführt. Dabei wurden zahlreiche mögliche cis-regulatorische Elemente einer Kernpromotor-Sequenz, sowie TFBS zur Regulation von Stress-, Licht- und Pathogen-induzierten Genen lokalisiert. Eine Eingrenzung der aktiven Promotor-Region (< 2012 Bp) konnte damit nicht erzielt werden. Die Erstellung von sGFP- und GUS- Reportergen-Konstrukten mit der StpABC-Region und die Generierung transgener Pflanzen ermöglichte eine funktionelle Analyse. (...)

Optimisation du transfert de gènes dans la rétine par des vecteurs lentiviraux lors de maladies dégénératives de la rétine

Certaines dégénérescences rétiniennes sont engendrées par des mutations¦génétiques et conduisent à la perte des cellules photosensibles, les¦photorécepteurs (cônes et/ou bâtonnets), et donc à la cécité (Roy et al., 2010).¦La prévalence est de 1/3000 chez les Caucasiens. Les Rétinites Pigmentaires¦(RP) en composent la majorité des cas, suivent l'Amaurose congénitale de¦Leber et la maladie de Stargardt. Il n'y a pas une mutation type associés à une¦maladie mais diverses mutations peuvent aboutir à une dégénérescence de la¦rétine. Tout comme le reste du système nerveux central, la rétine lésée n'a pas¦les capacités de se régénérer. Un objectif du traitement est de ralentir la¦dégénérescence de la rétine dans le but de la stabiliser. La thérapie génique¦constitue actuellement la seule approche thérapeutique à même de traiter les¦dégénérescences rétiniennes d'origine génétique. Elle consiste à utiliser un virus¦modifié, qui n'a plus les capacités de se reproduire, appelé vecteur pour cibler¦certaines cellules afin d'ajouter un gène sain ou d'inhiber un gène malade. Les¦virus associés à l'adénovirus (AAV) et les Lentivirus (LV) sont les 2 principaux¦types de virus utilisés en thérapie génique en ophtalmologie. D'autres vecteurs¦existent, comme les adénovirus et le virus de l'anémie infectieuse équine. Des¦études de thérapie génique effectuées chez l'homme avec le vecteur AAV ont¦démontré une sensible amélioration des fonctions visuelles (acuité visuelle,¦champ visuel, pupillométrie et le déplacement dans un environnement avec une¦lumière tamisée) chez des patients atteints d'Amaurose congénitale de Leber¦(Maguire et al., Ali et al., Hauswirth et al., Bennett et al.). Le vecteur utilisé au¦cours de ce travail est un LV, qui a pour avantage de pouvoir transporter de¦grands gènes. Lorsque ce vecteur est pseudotypé avec une enveloppe VSVG, il¦transduit (transférer un gène qui sera fonctionnel dans la cellule cible) bien¦l'épithélium pigmentaire rétinien (nécessaire à la survie et à la fonction des¦photorécepteurs). Afin de changer le tropisme du vecteur, celui testé dans cette¦étude contient une enveloppe de type Mokola qui cible efficacement les cellules¦gliales du cerveau et donc probablement aussi les cellules de Müller de la rétine.¦Le but à court terme est de transformer génétiquement ces cellules pour leur¦faire sécréter des molécules favorisant la survie des photorécepteurs. Pour¦révéler la cellule ciblée par le vecteur, le gène qui sera exprimé dans les cellules¦transduites code pour la protéine fluorescente verte 2 (GFPII) et n'a pas de¦fonction thérapeutique. Après avoir produit le virus, deux types de souris ont été¦injectées : des souris dépourvues du gène de la rhodopsine appelées Rho -/- et¦des souris sauvages appelées C57BL6. Les souris Rho -/- ont été choisies en¦tant que modèle de dégénérescence rétinienne et les souris C57BL6 en tant que¦comparatif. Les souris Rho -/- et C57BL56 ont été injectées entre le 2ème et le¦3ème mois de vie et sacrifiées 7 jours après. Des coupes histologiques de la rétine¦ont permis de mesurer et comparer pour chaque oeil, les distances de¦transduction du RPE et de la neurorétine (= toute la rétine sauf le RPE). La¦distance sur laquelle le RPE est transduit détermine la taille de la bulle¦d'injection alors que la distance sur laquelle la neurorétine est transduite¦détermine la capacité du vecteur à diffuser dans la rétine. Les résultats montrent¦une expression plus importante de la GFPII dans le RPE que dans la neurorétine¦chez les souris Rho -/- et C57BL6. Les principales cellules transduites au¦niveau de la neurorétine sont, comme attendu, les cellules de Müller. Lorsque¦l'on compare les proportions de neurorétine et de RPE transduites, on constate¦qu'il y a globalement eu une meilleure transduction chez les souris Rho -/-¦que chez les souris C57BL6. Cela signifie que le vecteur est plus efficace pour¦transduire une rétine dégénérée qu'une rétine saine. Pour déterminer quels types¦de cellules exprimaient la GFPII, des anticorps spécifiques de certains types de¦cellules ont été utilisés. Ces résultats sont similaires à ceux d'autres études¦effectuées précédemment, dont celle de Calame et al. en 2011, et tendent à¦prouver que le vecteur lentiviral avec l'enveloppe Mokola et le promoteur EFs¦est idéal pour transduire avec un gène thérapeutique des cellules de Müller dans¦des rétines en dégénérescence.

GLUT2 and the incretin receptors are involved in glucose-induced incretin secretion.

Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) are incretins secreted in response to oral glucose ingestion by intestinal L and K cells, respectively. The molecular mechanisms responsible for intestinal cell glucose sensing are unknown but could be related to those described for beta-cells, brain and hepatoportal sensors. We determined the role of GLUT2, GLP-1 or GIP receptors in glucose-induced incretins secretion, in the corresponding knockout mice. GLP-1 secretion was reduced in all mutant mice, while GIP secretion did not require GLUT2. Intestinal GLP-1 content was reduced only in GIP and GLUT2 receptors knockout mice suggesting that this impairment could contribute to the phenotype. Intestinal GIP content was similar in all mice studied. Furthermore, the impaired incretins secretion was associated with a reduced glucose-stimulated insulin secretion and an impaired glucose tolerance in all mice. In conclusion, both incretins secretion depends on mechanisms involving their own receptors and GLP-1 further requires GLUT2.

Functional sphere profiling reveals the complexity of neuroblastoma tumor-initiating cell model.

Neuroblastoma (NB) is a neural crest-derived childhood tumor characterized by a remarkable phenotypic diversity, ranging from spontaneous regression to fatal metastatic disease. Although the cancer stem cell (CSC) model provides a trail to characterize the cells responsible for tumor onset, the NB tumor-initiating cell (TIC) has not been identified. In this study, the relevance of the CSC model in NB was investigated by taking advantage of typical functional stem cell characteristics. A predictive association was established between self-renewal, as assessed by serial sphere formation, and clinical aggressiveness in primary tumors. Moreover, cell subsets gradually selected during serial sphere culture harbored increased in vivo tumorigenicity, only highlighted in an orthotopic microenvironment. A microarray time course analysis of serial spheres passages from metastatic cells allowed us to specifically "profile" the NB stem cell-like phenotype and to identify CD133, ABC transporter, and WNT and NOTCH genes as spheres markers. On the basis of combined sphere markers expression, at least two distinct tumorigenic cell subpopulations were identified, also shown to preexist in primary NB. However, sphere markers-mediated cell sorting of parental tumor failed to recapitulate the TIC phenotype in the orthotopic model, highlighting the complexity of the CSC model. Our data support the NB stem-like cells as a dynamic and heterogeneous cell population strongly dependent on microenvironmental signals and add novel candidate genes as potential therapeutic targets in the control of high-risk NB.

A gene knockout approach in mice to identify glucose sensors controlling glucose homeostasis.

A key aspect of glucose homeostasis is the constant monitoring of blood glucose concentrations by specific glucose sensing units. These sensors, via stimulation of hormone secretion and activation of the autonomic nervous system (ANS), regulate tissue glucose uptake, utilization or production. The best described glucose detection system is that of the pancreatic beta-cells which controls insulin secretion. Secretion of other hormones, in particular glucagon, and activation of the ANS, are regulated by glucose through sensing mechanisms which are much less well characterized. Here I review some of the studies we have performed over the recent years on a mouse model of impaired glucose sensing generated by inactivation of the gene for the glucose transporter GLUT2. This transporter catalyzes glucose uptake by pancreatic beta-cells, the first step in the signaling cascade leading to glucose-stimulated insulin secretion. Inactivation of its gene leads to a loss of glucose sensing and impaired insulin secretion. Transgenic reexpression of the transporter in GLUT2/beta-cells restores their normal secretory function and rescues the mice from early death. As GLUT2 is also expressed in other tissues, these mice were then studied for the presence of other physiological defects due to absence of this transporter. These studies led to the identification of extra-pancreatic, GLUT2-dependent, glucose sensors controlling glucagon secretion and glucose utilization by peripheral tissues, in part through a control of the autonomic nervous system.

Fatty acids decrease IDX-1 expression in rat pancreatic islets and reduce GLUT2, glucokinase, insulin, and somatostatin levels.

IDX-1 (islet/duodenum homeobox-1) is a transcription factor expressed in the duodenum and pancreatic beta and delta cells. It is required for embryonic development of the pancreas and transactivates the Glut2, glucokinase, insulin, and somatostatin genes. Here we show that exposure of isolated rat pancreatic islets to palmitic acid induced a approximately 70% decrease in IDX-1 mRNA and protein expression as well as 40 and 65% decreases in the binding activity of IDX-1 for its cognate cis-regulatory elements of the Glut2 and insulin promoters, respectively. The inhibitory effect of palmitic acid required its mitochondrial oxidation since it was prevented by the carnitine palmitoyltransferase I inhibitor bromopalmitic acid. The palmitic acid effect on IDX-1 was correlated with decreases in GLUT2 and glucokinase expression of 40 and 25%, respectively, at both the mRNA and protein levels. Insulin and somatostatin mRNA expression was also decreased by 40 and 60%, whereas glucagon mRNA expression was not modified. After 48 h of exposure to fatty acids, total islet insulin, somatostatin, and glucagon contents were decreased by 85, 55, and 65%, respectively. At the same time, total hormone release was strongly stimulated (13-fold) for glucagon, whereas its was only marginally increased for insulin and somatostatin (1.5- and 1.7-fold, respectively). These results indicate that elevated fatty acid levels 1) negatively regulate Idx-1 expression; 2) decrease the expression of genes transactivated by IDX-1 such as those for GLUT2, glucokinase, insulin, and somatostatin; and 3) lead to an important increase in glucagon synthesis and secretion. Fatty acids thus have pleiotropic effects on pancreatic islet gene expression, and the negative control of Idx-1 expression may be an initial event in the development of these multiple defects.

PKS2: A link between phototropin signalling and auxin transport - a study on how plants sense and respond to light.

The blue light photoreceptors phototropins (phot1 and phot2 in Arabidopsis thaliana (L.)) carry out various light responses of great adaptive value that optimize plant growth. These processes include phototropism (the bending of an organ induced by unequal light distribution), chloroplast movements, stomatal opening, leaf flattening and solar tracking. The biochemical pathways controlling these important blue light responses are just starting to be elucidated. The PHYTOCHROME KINASE SUBSTRATE (PKS1-4) proteins - the subject of this research - have recently been identified as novel phototropism signalling components. PKS1 (the founding member of this family) interacts in a same complex in vivo with phot1 and the important phot1 signalling element NON-PHOTOTROPIC HYPOCOTYL 3 (NPH3). This suggested that the PKS may act as early components of phot signalling. This work further investigates the role of this protein family during phototropin signalling Genetic experiments clearly showed that the PKS do not control chloroplast movements or stomatal opening. However, PKS2 plays a critical role with NPH3 during leaf flattening and solar tracking. Epistasis data indicated that both proteins act in phot1 and phot2 pathways, which is consistent with their in vivo interaction with both phototropins. Because phototropism, leaf flattening and solar tracking are developmental processes regulated by the hormone auxin, the role of PKS2 and NPH3 during auxin homeostasis was also investigated. Interestingly, PKS2 loss-of-function restores leaf flattening in the auxin transporter mutant aux1. Moreover, PKS2 and NPH3 are found in a same complex with AUX1 in vivo. Taken together, these results suggest that PKS2 may act with NPH3 as a connecting point between phot signalling and auxin transport. Further experiments were performed to explore the molecular mode of action of PKS2 and NPH3 in this process. The significance of these results is discussed.

Metabolic origin of insulin resistance in obesity with and without type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus.

A metabolic hypothesis is presented for insulin resistance in obesity, in the presence or absence of Type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus. It is based on physiological mechanisms including a series of negative feed-back mechanisms, with the inhibition of the function of the glycogen cycle in skeletal muscle as a consequence of decreased glucose utilization resulting from increased lipid oxidation in the obese. It considers the inhibition of glycogen synthase activity together with inhibition of glucose storage and impaired glucose tolerance. The prolonged duration of increased lipid oxidation, considered as the initial cause, may lead to Type 2 diabetes. This hypothesis is compatible with others based on the inhibition of insulin receptor kinase and of glucose transporter activities.

In vivo conditional Pax4 overexpression in mature islet β-cells prevents stress-induced hyperglycemia in mice.

OBJECTIVE To establish the role of the transcription factor Pax4 in pancreatic islet expansion and survival in response to physiological stress and its impact on glucose metabolism, we generated transgenic mice conditionally and selectively overexpressing Pax4 or a diabetes-linked mutant variant (Pax4R129 W) in β-cells. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS Glucose homeostasis and β-cell death and proliferation were assessed in Pax4- or Pax4R129 W-overexpressing transgenic animals challenged with or without streptozotocin. Isolated transgenic islets were also exposed to cytokines, and apoptosis was evaluated by DNA fragmentation or cytochrome C release. The expression profiles of proliferation and apoptotic genes and β-cell markers were studied by immunohistochemistry and quantitative RT-PCR. RESULTS Pax4 but not Pax4R129 W protected animals against streptozotocin-induced hyperglycemia and isolated islets from cytokine-mediated β-cell apoptosis. Cytochrome C release was abrogated in Pax4 islets treated with cytokines. Interleukin-1β transcript levels were suppressed in Pax4 islets, whereas they were increased along with NOS2 in Pax4R129 W islets. Bcl-2, Cdk4, and c-myc expression levels were increased in Pax4 islets while MafA, insulin, and GLUT2 transcript levels were suppressed in both animal models. Long-term Pax4 expression promoted proliferation of a Pdx1-positive cell subpopulation while impeding insulin secretion. Suppression of Pax4 rescued this defect with a concomitant increase in pancreatic insulin content. CONCLUSIONS Pax4 protects adult islets from stress-induced apoptosis by suppressing selective nuclear factor-κB target genes while increasing Bcl-2 levels. Furthermore, it promotes dedifferentiation and proliferation of β-cells through MafA repression, with a concomitant increase in Cdk4 and c-myc expression.

Catabolite repression in Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 regulates the uptake of C4 -dicarboxylates depending on succinate concentration.

In Pseudomonas aeruginosa carbon catabolite repression (CCR) is exerted by the CbrA/B-CrcZ-Crc global regulatory system. Crc is a translational repressor that, in the presence of preferred carbon sources, such as C4 -dicarboxylates, impairs the utilization of less preferred substrates. When non-preferred substrates are present, the CrcZ sRNA levels increase leading to Crc capture, thereby allowing growth of the bacterium at the expense of the non-preferred substrates. The C4 -dicarboxylate transport (Dct) system in P. aeruginosa is composed of two main transporters: DctA, more efficient at mM succinate concentrations, and DctPQM, more important at μM. In this study, we demonstrate that the Dct transporters are differentially regulated by Crc, depending on the concentration of succinate. At high concentrations, Crc positively regulates the expression of the dctA transporter gene and negatively regulates dctPQM post-transcriptionally. The activation of dctA is explained by a Crc-mediated repression of dctR, encoding a transcriptional repressor of dctA. At low succinate concentrations, Crc regulation is impaired. In this condition, CrcZ levels are higher and therefore more Crc proteins are sequestered, decreasing the amount of Crc available to perform CCR on dctR and dctPQM. As a result, expression of dctA is reduced and that of dctPQM is increased.

Normal kinetics of intestinal glucose absorption in the absence of GLUT2: evidence for a transport pathway requiring glucose phosphorylation and transfer into the endoplasmic reticulum.

Glucose is absorbed through the intestine by a transepithelial transport system initiated at the apical membrane by the cotransporter SGLT-1; intracellular glucose is then assumed to diffuse across the basolateral membrane through GLUT2. Here, we evaluated the impact of GLUT2 gene inactivation on this transepithelial transport process. We report that the kinetics of transepithelial glucose transport, as assessed in oral glucose tolerance tests, was identical in the presence or absence of GLUT2; that the transport was transcellular because it could be inhibited by the SGLT-1 inhibitor phlorizin, and that it could not be explained by overexpression of another known glucose transporter. By using an isolated intestine perfusion system, we demonstrated that the rate of transepithelial transport was similar in control and GLUT2(-/-) intestine and that it was increased to the same extent by cAMP in both situations. However, in the absence, but not in the presence, of GLUT2, the transport was inhibited dose-dependently by the glucose-6-phosphate translocase inhibitor S4048. Furthermore, whereas transport of [(14)C]glucose proceeded with the same kinetics in control and GLUT2(-/-) intestine, [(14)C]3-O-methylglucose was transported in intestine of control but not of mutant mice. Together our data demonstrate the existence of a transepithelial glucose transport system in GLUT2(-/-) intestine that requires glucose phosphorylation and transfer of glucose-6-phosphate into the endoplasmic reticulum. Glucose may then be released out of the cells by a membrane traffic-based pathway similar to the one we previously described in GLUT2-null hepatocytes.

ABCB1 and cytochrome P450 polymorphisms: clinical pharmacogenetics of clozapine.

To examine the genetic factors influencing clozapine kinetics in vivo, 75 patients treated with clozapine were genotyped for CYPs and ABCB1 polymorphisms and phenotyped for CYP1A2 and CYP3A activity. CYP1A2 activity and dose-corrected trough steady-state plasma concentrations of clozapine correlated significantly (r = -0.61; P = 1 x 10), with no influence of the CYP1A2*1F genotype (P = 0.38). CYP2C19 poor metabolizers (*2/*2 genotype) had 2.3-fold higher (P = 0.036) clozapine concentrations than the extensive metabolizers (non-*2/*2). In patients comedicated with fluvoxamine, a strong CYP1A2 inhibitor, clozapine and norclozapine concentrations correlate with CYP3A activity (r = 0.44, P = 0.075; r = 0.63, P = 0.007, respectively). Carriers of the ABCB1 3435TT genotype had a 1.6-fold higher clozapine plasma concentrations than noncarriers (P = 0.046). In conclusion, this study has shown for the first time a significant in vivo role of CYP2C19 and the P-gp transporter in the pharmacokinetics of clozapine. CYP1A2 is the main CYP isoform involved in clozapine metabolism, with CYP2C19 contributing moderately, and CYP3A4 contributing only in patients with reduced CYP1A2 activity. In addition, ABCB1, but not CYP2B6, CYP2C9, CYP2D6, CYP3A5, nor CYP3A7 polymorphisms, influence clozapine pharmacokinetics.

Basic biochemical investigations as rationale for the design of original antimalarial drugs. An example of phospholipid metabolism

The future of antimalarial chemotherapy is particulary alarming in view of the spread of parasite cross-resistances to drugs that are not even structurally related. Only the availability of new pharmacological models will make it possible to select molecules with novel mechanisms of action, thus delaving resistance and allowing the development of new chemotherapeutic strategies. We reached this objective in mice. Our approach is hunged on fundamental and applied research begun in 1980 to investigate to phospholipid (PL) metabolism of intraerythrocytic Plasmodium. This metabolism is abundant, specific and indispensable for the production of Plasmodium membranes. Any drug to interfere with this metabolism blocks parasitic development. The most effective interference yet found involves blockage of the choline transporter, which supplies Plasmodium with choline for the synthesis of phosphatidylcholine, its major PL, this is a limiting step in the pathway. The drug sensitivity thereshold is much lower for the parasite, which is more dependent on this metabolism than host cells. The compounds show in vitro activity against P. falciparum at 1 to 10 nM. They show a very low toxicity against a lymphblastoid cell line, demonstrating a total abscence of correlation between growth inhibition of parasites and lymphoblastoid cells. They show antimalarial activity in vivo, in the P. berghei or P. chabaudi/mouse system, at doses 20-to 100-fold lower than their in acute toxicity limit. The bioavailability of a radiolabeled form of the product seemed to be advantageous (slow blood clearance and no significant concentration in tissues). Lastly, the compounds are inexpensive to produce. They are stable and water-soluble.