The Swiss Schools have been Governed by Local Lay Authorities

After the introduction of the liberal-democratic constitutions in the Swiss cantons in the first half of the 1830ies the grid of existing schools has been systemized and broadly expanded. The school systems have ever since been characterized by one key element: a special local authority type called „Schulkommission“ or „Schulpflege“. They take the form of committees consisting of laymen that are appointed by democratic elections like all the other executive bodies on the different federal levels in Switzerland. When it comes to their obligations and activities these community level school committees conform very much to the school boards in the American and Canadian school systems. They are accountable for the selection and supervision of the teachers. They approve decisions about the school careers of pupils and about curricular matters like the choice of school books. Normally their members are elected by the local voters for four year terms of office (reelection remains possible) and with regard to pedagogics they normally are non-professionals. The board members are responsible for classes and teachers assigned to them and they have to go to see them periodically. These visitations and the board meetings each month together with the teachers enable the board members to attain a deep insight into what happens in their schools over the course of their term of office. But they are confronted as laymen with a professional teaching staff and with educational experts in the public administration. Nevertheless this form of executive power by non-professionals is constitutive for the state governance in the Swiss as well as in other national political environments. It corresponds to the principles of subsidiarity and militia and therefore allows for a strong accentuation of liberty and the right of self-determination, two axioms at the very base of democratic federalist ideology. This governance architecture with this strong accent on local anchorage features substantial advantages for the legitimacy and acceptability of political and administrative decisions. And this is relevant especially in the educational area because the rearing of the offspring is a project of hope and, besides, quite costly. In the public opinion such supervision bodies staffed by laymen seem to have certain credibility advances in comparison with the professional administration. They are given credit to be capable of impeding the waste of common financial resources and of warranting the protection and the fostering of the community’s children at once. Especially because of their non-professional character they are trusted to be reliably immune against organizational blindness and they seem to be able to defend the interests of the local community against the standardization and centralization aspirations originating from the administrational expertocracy. In the paper these common rationales will be underpinned by results of a comprehensive historical analysis of the Session protocols of three Bernese school commissions from 1835 to 2005.

Promoting gender equality in responses to climate change: The case of Kenya

The paper discusses how Kenyan policies and organisations address gender equality in climate change-related responses. The political support for gender issues is reflected in presidential directives on various actions for achieving gender equality such as the establishment of gender desk officers and ensuring 30 per cent female representation in government. Despite the well-advanced gender mainstreaming policy in Kenya, few policies focus on climate change and even fewer on its inter-linkages with gender. At the field level, encrusted traditions, inadequately trained staff, limited financial resources, and limited awareness of the inter-linkages between gender and climate change remain major challenges to promoting gender equality in the work of government organisations. The paper thus proposes measures for addressing these challenges and strengthening gender equality in responses to climate change.

Causes, forms and consequences of the professionalization of international sport federa-tions in Switzerland: Conceptual framework and first results

Synopsis: Sport organisations are facing multiple challenges originating from an increasingly complex and dynamic environment in general, and from internal changes in particular. Our study seeks to reveal and analyse the causes for professionalization processes in international sport federations, the forms resulting from it, as well as related consequences. Abstract: AIM OF ABSTRACT/PAPER - RESEARCH QUESTION Sport organisations are facing multiple challenges originating from an increasingly complex and dynamic environment in general, and from internal changes in particular. In this context, professionalization seems to have been adopted by sport organisations as an appropriate strategy to respond to pressures such as becoming more “business-like”. The ongoing study seeks to reveal and analyse the internal and external causes for professionalization processes in international sport federations, the forms resulting from it (e.g. organisational, managerial, economic) as well as related consequences on objectives, values, governance methods, performance management or again rationalisation. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND/LITERATURE REVIEW Studies on sport as specific non-profit sector mainly focus on the prospect of the “professionalization of individuals” (Thibault, Slack & Hinings, 1991), often within sport clubs (Thiel, Meier & Cachay, 2006) and national sport federations (Seippel, 2002) or on organisational change (Griginov & Sandanski, 2008; Slack & Hinings, 1987, 1992; Slack, 1985, 2001), thus leaving broader analysis on governance, management and professionalization in sport organisations an unaccomplished task. In order to further current research on above-mentioned topics, our intention is to analyse causes, forms and consequences of professionalisation processes in international sport federations. The social theory of action (Coleman, 1986; Esser, 1993) has been defined as appropriate theoretical framework, deriving in the following a multi-level framework for the analysis of sport organisations (Nagel, 2007). In light of the multi-level framework, sport federations are conceptualised as corporative actors whose objectives are defined and implemented with regard to the interests of member organisations (Heinemann, 2004) and/or other pressure groups. In order to understand social acting and social structures (Giddens 1984) of sport federations, two levels are in the focus of our analysis: the macro level examining the environment at large (political, social, economic systems etc.) and the meso level (Esser, 1999) examining organisational structures, actions and decisions of the federation’s headquarter as well as member organisations. METHODOLOGY, RESEARCH DESIGN AND DATA ANALYSIS The multi-level framework mentioned seeks to gather and analyse information on causes, forms and consequences of professionalization processes in sport federations. It is applied in a twofold approach: first an exploratory study based on nine semi-structured interviews with experts from umbrella sport organisations (IOC, WADA, ASOIF, AIOWF, etc.) as well as the analysis of related documents, relevant reports (IOC report 2000 on governance reform, Agenda 2020, etc.) and important moments of change in the Olympic Movement (Olympic revenue share, IOC evaluation criteria, etc.); and secondly several case studies. Whereas the exploratory study seeks more the causes for professionalization on an external, internal and headquarter level as depicted in the literature, the case studies rather focus on forms and consequences. Applying our conceptual framework, the analysis of forms is built around three dimensions: 1) Individuals (persons and positions), 2) Processes, structures (formalisation, specialisation), 3) Activities (strategic planning). With regard to consequences, we centre our attention on expectations of and relationships with stakeholders (e.g. cooperation with business partners), structure, culture and processes (e.g. governance models, performance), and expectations of and relationships with member organisations (e.g. centralisation vs. regionalisation). For the case studies, a mixed-method approach is applied to collect relevant data: questionnaires for rather quantitative data, interviews for rather qualitative data, as well as document and observatory analysis. RESULTS, DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS/CONCLUSIONS With regard to causes of professionalization processes, we analyse the content of three different levels: 1. the external level, where the main pressure derives from financial resources (stakeholders, benefactors) and important turning points (scandals, media pressure, IOC requirements for Olympic sports); 2. the internal level, where pressure from member organisations turned out to be less decisive than assumed (little involvement of member organisations in decision-making); 3. the headquarter level, where specific economic models (World Cups, other international circuits, World Championships), and organisational structures (decision-making procedures, values, leadership) trigger or hinder a federation’s professionalization process. Based on our first analysis, an outline for an economic model is suggested, distinguishing four categories of IFs: “money-generating IFs” being rather based on commercialisation and strategic alliances; “classical Olympic IFs” being rather reactive and dependent on Olympic revenue; “classical non-Olympic IFs” being rather independent of the Olympic Movement; and “money-receiving IFs” being dependent on benefactors and having strong traditions and values. The results regarding forms and consequences will be outlined in the presentation. The first results from the two pilot studies will allow us to refine our conceptual framework for subsequent case studies, thus extending our data collection and developing fundamental conclusions. References: Bayle, E., & Robinson, L. (2007). A framework for understanding the performance of national governing bodies of sport. European Sport Management Quarterly, 7, 249–268 Chantelat, P. (2001). La professionnalisation des organisations sportives: Nouveaux débats, nouveaux enjeux [Professionalisation of sport organisations]. Paris: L’Harmattan. Dowling, M., Edwards, J., & Washington, M. (2014). Understanding the concept of professionalization in sport management research. Sport Management Review. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1016/j.smr.2014.02.003 Ferkins, L. & Shilbury, D. (2012). Good Boards Are Strategic: What Does That Mean for Sport Governance? Journal of Sport Management, 26, 67-80. Thibault, L., Slack, T., & Hinings, B. (1991). Professionalism, structures and systems: The impact of professional staff on voluntary sport organizations. International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 26, 83–97.

Study of length of stay in the cardiovascular intensive care unit

Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery is among the most common operations performed in the United States and accounts for more resources expended in cardiovascular medicine than any other single procedure. CABG surgery patients initially recover in the Cardiovascular Intensive Care Unit (CVICU). The post-procedure CVICU length of stay (LOS) goal is two days or less. A longer ICU LOS is associated with a prolonged hospital LOS, poor health outcomes, greater use of limited resources, and increased medical costs. ^ Research has shown that experienced clinicians can predict LOS no better than chance. Current CABG surgery LOS risk models differ greatly in generalizability and ease of use in the clinical setting. A predictive model that identified modifiable pre- and intra-operative risk factors for CVICU LOS greater than two days could have major public health implications as modification of these identified factors could decrease CVICU LOS and potentially minimize morbidity and mortality, optimize use of limited health care resources, and decrease medical costs. ^ The primary aim of this study was to identify modifiable pre-and intra-operative predictors of CVICU LOS greater than two days for CABG surgery patients with cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB). A secondary aim was to build a probability equation for CVICU LOS greater than two days. Data were extracted from 416 medical records of CABG surgery patients with CPB, 50 to 80 years of age, recovered in the CVICU of a large teaching, referral hospital in southeastern Texas, during the calendar year 2004 and the first quarter of 2005. Exclusion criteria included Diagnosis Related Group (DRG) 106, CABG surgery without CPB, CABG surgery with other procedures, and operative deaths. The data were analyzed using multivariate logistic regression for an alpha=0.05, power=0.80, and correlation=0.26. ^ This study found age, history of peripheral arterial disease, and total operative time equal to and greater than four hours to be independent predictors of CVICU LOS greater than two days. The probability of CVICU LOS greater than two days can be calculated by the following equation: -2.872941 +.0323081 (age in years) + .8177223 (history of peripheral arterial disease) + .70379 (operative time). ^

A comparison of worker risk of injury while working on fully automated side loaders and other residential collection trucks at a large solid waste collection company

The study aim was to determine whether using automated side loader (ASL) trucks in higher proportions compared to other types of trucks for residential waste collection results in lower injury rates (from all causes). The primary hypothesis was that the risk of injury to workers was lower for those who work with ASL trucks than for workers who work with other types of trucks used in residential waste collection. To test this hypothesis, data were collected from one of the nation’s largest companies in the solid waste management industry. Different local operating units (i.e. facilities) in the company used different types of trucks to varying degrees, which created a special opportunity to examine refuse collection injuries and illnesses and the risk reduction potential of ASL trucks.^ The study design was ecological and analyzed end-of-year data provided by the company for calendar year 2007. During 2007, there were a total of 345 facilities which provided residential services. Each facility represented one observation.^ The dependent variable – injury and illness rate, was defined as a facility’s total case incidence rate (TCIR) recorded in accordance with federal OSHA requirements for the year 2007. The TCIR is the rate of total recordable injury and illness cases per 100 full-time workers. The independent variable, percent of ASL trucks, was calculated by dividing the number of ASL trucks by the total number of residential trucks at each facility.^ Multiple linear regression models were estimated for the impact of the percent of ASL trucks on TCIR per facility. Adjusted analyses included three covariates: median number of hours worked per week for residential workers; median number of months of work experience for residential workers; and median age of residential workers. All analyses were performed with the statistical software, Stata IC (version 11.0).^ The analyses included three approaches to classifying exposure, percent of ASL trucks. The first approach included two levels of exposure: (1) 0% and (2) >0 - <100%. The second approach included three levels of exposure: (1) 0%, (2) ≥ 1 - < 100%, and (3) 100%. The third approach included six levels of exposure to improve detection of a dose-response relationship: (1) 0%, (2) 1 to <25%, (3) 25 to <50%, (4) 50 to <75%, (5) 75 to <100%, and (6) 100%. None of the relationships between injury and illness rate and percent ASL trucks exposure levels was statistically significant (i.e., p<0.05), even after adjustment for all three covariates.^ In summary, the present study shows that there is some risk reduction impact of ASL trucks but not statistically significant. The covariates demonstrated a varied yet more modest impact on the injury and illness rate but again, none of the relationships between injury and illness rate and the covariates were statistically significant (i.e., p<0.05). However, as an ecological study, the present study also has the limitations inherent in such designs and warrants replication in an individual level cohort design. Any stronger conclusions are not suggested.^

“Realidad o Utopía" : : ley de ordenamiento territorial

La lógica del mercado y al cambio de modelo de desarrollo en América Latina, en el intento de poder competir a nivel mundial, ha agudizado las disparidades y el deterioro ambiental. La presión que ejercen las grandes empresas y ciertos grupos con poder, el enquistamiento de una estructura administrativa que puja por mantener esquemas tradicionales ya perimidos y la falta de planificación impiden atender uno de los problemas claves que plantea la economía en el territorio, el de la concentración y los desequilibrios territoriales. Surge entonces el Ordenamiento Territorial como alternativa válida para atenuar estos procesos y dar respuesta a la sociedad. El caso que se presenta pone en el tapete muchos de estos temas que hoy preocupan y puede servir como experiencia transferible y aplicable a otras realidades que buscan consolidar un desarrollo local sustentable. El ante-proyecto de Ley de Ordenamiento Territorial y Usos del Suelo para la provincia de Mendoza, República Argentina, es un instrumento elaborado en el año 2006 por el sector académico-científico que desde una visión interdisciplinaria incorpora fundamentos técnicos y aportes de los actores sociales involucrados. La metodología aplicada permite consensuar por la sociedad en su conjunto los principios que sustentan la Ley, determinar la aplicación de ciertos instrumentos para efectivizar acciones en el territorio y definir una forma innovadora de hacer política, gestionar y planificar el uso del suelo. La propuesta considera al Ordenamiento Territorial como una política de Estado que debe propiciar condiciones de gobernabilidad. Sus principios y normas priorizan la equidad y el bienestar general por encima de los intereses particulares así como también el respeto de los valores y costumbres de la sociedad. Surge de un proceso participativo y sus principios y fines responden a los problemas actuales. Incorpora una serie de instrumentos debidamente jerarquizados conforme a las competencias jurisdiccionales y existencia de distintas escalas geográficas, como también, instrumentos jurídicos y prácticas administrativas innovadoras que permiten la resolución de conflictos territoriales. Identifica además recursos financieros para implementarla y prioriza el fortalecimiento de los mecanismos de control para un funcionamiento más ágil y eficaz de la gestión pública. Sin embargo existen riesgos vinculados a la voluntad política y el poder económico que pueden impedir que esta utopía se transforme en realidad. Solo la participación social es la que puede lograr vencer los intereses en juego y conseguir la aprobación de la Ley. Si esto se consigue se habrá dado un paso muy importante a ser imitado, sin lugar a dudas, en otros lugares de Argentina y América Latina.

Reformas laborales y movilización sindical en los años noventa en Argentina : El caso del sindicato automotriz

Este artículo trata de las relaciones entre las reformas neoliberales y la movilización sindical en los años noventa en la Argentina. ¿Hasta qué punto los sindicatos y los trabajadores aprobaron el neoliberalismo y las reformas económicas? ¿Cómo afectaron estos cambios sus capacidades organizativas? Nuestra hipótesis es que a pesar de los costos que trajeron sobre los asalariados, los sindicatos mantuvieron su organización no solo mediante negociaciones por recursos financieros sino también a través de la capacidad de movilización en las grandes fábricas. Estas negociaciones sucedieron luego de oponerse contra los efectos de tales políticas en la primera parte de la década, aunque no contra su política global. Realizamos un estudio de caso basado en el sector automotriz con enfoque en algunas fábricas terminales. Asimismo intentamos hacer una contribución crítica respecto de la bibliografía especializada en las relaciones laborales en la Argentina en la era neoliberal

Reformas laborales y movilización sindical en los años noventa en Argentina : El caso del sindicato automotriz

Este artículo trata de las relaciones entre las reformas neoliberales y la movilización sindical en los años noventa en la Argentina. ¿Hasta qué punto los sindicatos y los trabajadores aprobaron el neoliberalismo y las reformas económicas? ¿Cómo afectaron estos cambios sus capacidades organizativas? Nuestra hipótesis es que a pesar de los costos que trajeron sobre los asalariados, los sindicatos mantuvieron su organización no solo mediante negociaciones por recursos financieros sino también a través de la capacidad de movilización en las grandes fábricas. Estas negociaciones sucedieron luego de oponerse contra los efectos de tales políticas en la primera parte de la década, aunque no contra su política global. Realizamos un estudio de caso basado en el sector automotriz con enfoque en algunas fábricas terminales. Asimismo intentamos hacer una contribución crítica respecto de la bibliografía especializada en las relaciones laborales en la Argentina en la era neoliberal

Reformas laborales y movilización sindical en los años noventa en Argentina : El caso del sindicato automotriz

Este artículo trata de las relaciones entre las reformas neoliberales y la movilización sindical en los años noventa en la Argentina. ¿Hasta qué punto los sindicatos y los trabajadores aprobaron el neoliberalismo y las reformas económicas? ¿Cómo afectaron estos cambios sus capacidades organizativas? Nuestra hipótesis es que a pesar de los costos que trajeron sobre los asalariados, los sindicatos mantuvieron su organización no solo mediante negociaciones por recursos financieros sino también a través de la capacidad de movilización en las grandes fábricas. Estas negociaciones sucedieron luego de oponerse contra los efectos de tales políticas en la primera parte de la década, aunque no contra su política global. Realizamos un estudio de caso basado en el sector automotriz con enfoque en algunas fábricas terminales. Asimismo intentamos hacer una contribución crítica respecto de la bibliografía especializada en las relaciones laborales en la Argentina en la era neoliberal

Diverging Development Paths of the Electronics Industry in Korea and Taiwan

This paper examines the process and mechanism of economic development in the Republic of Korea and Taiwan through a comparative analysis of the electronics industry in each country. The paper will show that in its initial stage of development, the electronics industry in both economies had the same type of dual structure: a domestic demand sector based on the protected domestic market, and an export sector intended to capitalize on low-wage labor for the international market. However, this dual structure in the two economies faded away after the mid-1970s as their respective indigenous export-oriented enterprises began to develop. But the primary industrial players in each economy were very different. In Korea they were comprehensive electronics manufacturers affiliated with chaebols, and in Taiwan they were small and medium-size enterprises. Differences in the two economies' development mechanisms have brought about this divergence in development paths. In Korea this mechanism has been characterized by the government's positive role and the chaebol's readiness to react to the government's leadership. In Taiwan the development mechanism has been based on the private sector independent from the government. As an extension of such diverged development paths, ICs and personal computers showed spectacular growth in Korea and Taiwan after the 1980s. The development of ICs in Korea was primarily the result of a decisive role played by the chaebol's sizable financial resources, while the competitiveness in personal computers largely reflected the agility and flexibility of Taiwanese small and medium-size enterprises.

Fiabilidad de los sistemas fotovoltaicos autónomos

Los sistemas fotovoltaicos autónomos, es decir, sistemas que carecen de conexión a la red eléctrica, presentan una gran utilidad para poder llevar a cabo la electrificación de lugares remotos donde no hay medios de acceder a la energía eléctrica. El continuo avance en el número de sistemas instalados por todo el mundo y su continua difusión técnica no significa que la implantación de estas instalaciones no presente ninguna problemática. A excepción del panel fotovoltaico que presenta una elevada fiabilidad, el resto de elementos que forman el sistema presentan numerosos problemas y dependencias, por tanto el estudio de las fiabilidades de estos elementos es obligado. En este proyecto se pretende analizar y estudiar detalladamente la fiabilidad de los sistemas fotovoltaicos aislados. Primeramente, el presente documento ofrece una introducción sobre la situación mundial de las energías renovables, así como una explicación detallada de la energía fotovoltaica. Esto incluye una explicación técnica de los diferentes elementos que forman el sistema energético (módulo fotovoltaico, batería, regulador de carga, inversor, cargas, cableado y conectores). Por otro lado, se hará un estudio teórico del concepto de fiabilidad, con sus definiciones y parámetros más importantes. Llegados a este punto, el proyecto aplica la teoría de fiabilidad comentada a los sistemas fotovoltaicos autónomos, profundizando en la fiabilidad de cada elemento del sistema así como evaluando el conjunto. Por último, se muestran datos reales de fiabilidad de programas de electrificación, demostrando la variedad de resultados sujetos a los distintos emplazamientos de las instalaciones y por tanto distintas condiciones de trabajo. Se destaca de esta forma la importancia de la fiabilidad de los sistemas fotovoltaicos autónomos, pues normalmente este tipo de instalaciones se localizan en emplazamientos remotos, sin personal cualificado de mantenimiento cercano ni grandes recursos logísticos y económicos. También se resalta en el trabajo la dependencia de la radiación solar y el perfil de consumo a la hora de dimensionar el sistema. Abstract Stand-alone photovoltaic systems which are not connected to the utility grid. These systems are very useful to carry out the electrification of remote locations where is no easy to access to electricity. The number increased of systems installed worldwide and their continued dissemination technique does not mean that these systems doesn´t fails. With the exception of the photovoltaic panel with a high reliability, the remaining elements of the system can to have some problems and therefore the study of the reliabilities of these elements is required. This project tries to analyze and study the detaila of the reliability of standalone PV systems. On the one hand, this paper provides an overview of the global situation of renewable energy, as well as a detailed explanation of photovoltaics. This includes a technical detail of the different elements of the energy system (PV module, battery, charge controller, inverter, loads, wiring and connectors). In addition, there will be a theoricall study of the concept of reliability, with the most important definitions and key parameters. On the other hand, the project applies the reliability concepts discussed to the stand-alone photovoltaic systems, analyzing the reliability of each element of the system and analyzing the entire system. Finally, this document shows the most important data about reliability of some electrification programs, checking the variety of results subject to different places and different conditions. As a conclussion, the importance of reliability of stand-alone photovoltaic systems because usually these are located in remote locations, without qualified maintenance and financial resources.These systems operate under dependence of solar radiation and the consumption profile.

Políticas de esfuerzo combinado económico-laboral en la retención y atracción del conocimiento científico: un estudio del caso español

El objetivo de este trabajo es la aportación de un caso que evidencie la importancia de realizar esfuerzos tanto en el terreno económico como en el laboral para conseguir una adecuada retención y atracción del conocimiento científico. Para ello, se analizan los datos de un estudio que destaca estas cuestiones para un país como España, que necesita urgentemente mejorar su balance de movilidad investigadora. Los resultados confirman la importancia de la aplicación de estas medidas y las debilidades que presenta en este tipo de políticas el sistema nacional de investigación, desarrollo e innovación (I+D+i). Abstract: The goal of this paper is to disclose a case study which highlights the impor tance of realising effor ts at an economic and labour scale in order to reach an adequate retention and attraction of scientific knowledge. Although science has evolved during different periods through the flow of mankind and ideas, studies about international mobility of scientists are recent in time. It started mid XXth century with the brain drain phenomenon. To alleviate the loss of scientists, countries have disclosed different politics. Some countries like Singapore, Southern Korea, India and China have been successful in bringing scientists back home. Those countries have made huge effor ts in human resources investments and scientific infrastructures, so as to enforce their national R&D&I systems. Despite such experiences and despite the increasement in terms of evidences related with international scientific mobility, few studies and figures have been disclosed. The goal of this current work is to disclose data, which backs up the liability of such kind of politics that combine effor ts in economic and labour terms. For that reason, data has been analyzed from a study which highlights these key aspects for a country like Spain and which recently established a wide range of politics in order to attract scientists. Despite the increasement of financial resources, such politics have turned out unable to reach a proper balance in terms of mobility research. Such data as well as it analysis comes from the development of an annual survey to Spanish scientists during the period 2008- 2011. Based on sample data and analysis an expectations index for the coming year has been constructed. This compares the level of confidence which related the support and prestige of their national R&D&I systems in which they operate. Two groups where surveyed: young researchers which currently work in Spain and as a group are more likely to go working abroad and Spanish scientists who are currently working abroad. Samples were obtained for young researchers were the following: 2008 (217), 2009 (270), 2010 (390) and 2011 (610). In the case of Spanish scientists abroad, the following data were obtained: 2008 (218), 2009 (250), 2010 (241) and 2011 (167). Both groups assume simple random sampling, with a level of confidence of 95%. The results obtained confirm the importance of this combined effor t of labor and economic policies which presents weaknesses of Spanish national R&D&I systems and its application, so that Spain becomes a pole of excellence in terms of attraction and retention of scientific knowledge.

Estudio de la movilidad que presenta el diésel en un suelo contaminado empleando surfactantes

La contaminación de suelos con hidrocarburos de petróleo en México es un problema que se ha vuelto muy común en nuestros días, debido principalmente a derrames, así como a las actividades propias de la industria petrolera. Algunos suelos contaminados, principalmente en el sureste de México, contienen concentraciones de hidrocarburos hasta de 450,000 mg/kg. Por dichas razones, una de las preocupaciones de las autoridades ambientales es el desarrollo de tecnologías eficientes y económicamente factibles que permitan la eliminación de este tipo de contaminantes. El saneamiento del sitio se puede lograr a través de diversos procedimientos, como son la aplicación de métodos físicos, químicos y biológicos (o combinaciones de ellas). La elección de un método depende de la naturaleza del contaminante, su estado físico, concentración, tipo de suelo, espacio físico disponible, tiempo destinado para su tratamiento, así como de los recursos económicos disponibles. Previa a la aplicación de la tecnología es necesario la realización de un diagnóstico de la contaminación del suelo, con el fin de conocer el tipo, concentración y distribución de los contaminantes presentes, así como el volumen de suelo a tratar, las condiciones climáticas de la zona, y características físicas del lugar (vías de acceso y servicios, entre otros). En la presente tesis, el empleo de surfactantes, se ha propuesto como una técnica para incrementar la movilidad de contaminantes orgánicos hidrofóbicos (HOCs) como hidrocarburos totales del petróleo (HTPs), bifenilos policlorados (PCBs), Benceno, Tolueno, Xilenos, explosivos, clorofenoles, pesticidas, entre otros, y así facilitar su degradación. Los surfactantes debido a que reducen la tensión superficial del agua, son moléculas formadas por grupos polares hidrofílicos y largas cadenas carbonadas hidrofóbicas. Sus grupos polares forman puentes hidrógeno con las moléculas de agua, mientras que las cadenas carbonadas se asocian a los hidrocarburos debido a interacciones hidrofóbicas que estos presentan. En soluciones acuosas, los surfactantes forman estructuras esféricas organizadas llamadas micelas. La solubilización de los contaminantes se lleva a cabo solamente cuando se forma la fase micelar, la cual se obtiene cuando la concentración del surfactante es superior a la concentración micelar crítica (CMC), es decir, arriba de la concentración de la cual el monómero se comienza a auto-agregar. La eficiencia de desorción de diésel por un surfactante depende de su naturaleza, de la dosis empleada, de la hidrofobicidad del contaminante, de la interacción surfactante-suelo y del tiempo de contacto surfactante-suelo. Sin embargo, la mejor eficiencia de desorción no está siempre relacionada con la mejor eficiencia de movilidad o solubilidad, debido principalmente a que el empleo de una alta concentración de surfactante puede inhibir la movilización. De acuerdo con información proporcionada por la Procuraduría Federal de Protección al Ambiente (PROFEPA), a la fecha no se ha llevado a cabo en México ninguna restauración de sitios específicamente contaminados con diésel, la técnica de lavado de suelos. Por lo anterior existe la necesidad de emplear la técnica de lavado de suelos ex situ. Específicamente en el suelo extraído de la ex refinería 18 de marzo ubicada en el Distrito Federal México y empleando una solución de surfactantes con agua desionizada, la cual consiste ponerlos en contacto con el suelo contaminado con diésel por medio de columnas de lavado cilíndricas, para lograr la remoción del contaminante. Se emplearon como surfactantes el lauril sulfato de sodio, lauril éter sulfato de sodio y Glucopon AV-100 a diferentes concentraciones de 0.5 a 4.0 [g/L], lográndose obtener una eficiencia del 80 % con este último surfactante. El lavado de suelos contaminados con diésel empleado surfactantes, es una tecnología que requiere que se profundice en el estudio de algunas variables como son el tipo de surfactante, concentración, tiempo de lavado, fenómenos de difusión, desorción, propiedades termodinámicas, entre otros. Los cuales determinarán el éxito o fracaso de la técnica empleada. Nowadays, soil pollution with oil in Mexico is a very common issue due mainly to both oil spill and oil activities. For example, mainly in the southeast area of Mexico, polluted soil contains high concentrations of hydrocarbons, up to 450,000 mg/kg. For these reasons, enviromental authorities have the concern in developing economically feasible and efficient technology that allow the elimination of these type of contaminants. The sanitation in sites can be achieved through several procedures such as physical, chemical and biological methods (or a combination among them). The choice of a method depends on the nature and physical state of the contaminant, the concentration, type of soil, physical space available, time consumption and financial resources. Before any technological application, a diagnostic of the polluted soil is necessary in order to know the type, concentration and distribution of contaminants as well as the soil volume, climatic conditions and physical features of the place (access routes and services, among others). In this thesis, surfactants has been proposed as a technique to increase the mobility of hydrophobic-organic contaminants (HOCs), e.g. total hydrocarbons of petroleum, polychlorinated biphenyls, benzene, toluene, xylenes, explosives, chlorophenols, pesticides, among others, and, hence, to facilitate degradation. Since surfactants reduce the water surface tension, they are molecules comprised of hydrophilic polar groups and long-hydrophobic carbon chains. Surfactant’s polar groups form hydrogen bonding with water molecules while carbon chains, i.e. hydrocarbon chains, have hydrophobic interactios. In aqueous solutions, surfactants form self-organised spherical structures called micelles. The solubilisation of contaminants is carried out only when the micellar phase is formed. This is obtained when the surfactant concentration is higher than the crítical micelle concentration (CMC), i.e. above the concentration where the surfactant monomer begins to self-aggregate. The diesel efficiency desorption by surfactants depends on their nature, the dose use, the contaminant hydrophobicity, the surfactant-soil interaction and the contact time with surfactant soil. However, the best desorption is not always related with the best either mobility or solubility efficiency since high concentration of surfactant can inhibit mobilisation. According to information of the Federal Bureau of Environmental Protection (PROFEPA), up today, there is not any restauration of diesel-polluted sites using the washing-soil technique. Due to the above, there exist the necessity of employing the waching-soil technique ex situ. More specifically, a sample soil from the oil-refinery of “18 de marzo” in Mexico city was extracted and a surfactant solution with deionised water was put in contact with the diesel contaminated soil by means of cylindrical waching columns in order to remove the contaminant. The surfactants employed in this work were sodium lauryl sulfate, sodium lauryl ether sulfate and Glucopon AV-100 at different concentrations of 0.5 to 4 [g/L], obtaining a efficiency of 80 % with this last surfactant. The washing of diesel-polluted soil using surfactants is a technology which requires a deeper study of some variables such as the type of surfactant, concentration, washing time, difusión phenomena, desorption, thermodynamic properties, among others. These parameters determine the succes or failure of the employed technique.

O BÔNUS PROFESSOR

Esta dissertação de mestrado fundamenta-se na pesquisa qualitativa e tem como objetivo a análise da ideologia do Bônus Mérito, instituído para os servidores públicos do Estado de São Paulo no início da década de 2000. Limitamos nossa análise à docência do ensino fundamental. As transformações econômicas, ocorridas a partir da década de 1980 nos países altamente industrializados, passam a exigir a melhoria do ensino dos países emergentes. Em conseqüência, a educação volta a ser revalorizada e a ter papel de destaque para os investimentos externos, através das agências e órgãos internacionais tais como: Bird, Unesco, Banco Mundial, PNUD. A ideologia do Bônus Mérito é um exemplo típico de transferência para o âmbito educacional de modelos de gestão das empresas privadas. Esta ideologia afeta a atividade docente, cujo desempenho é, doravante medido através de pontos, divisão de trabalho, impessoalidade, requalificação profissional etc. Efetivamente, em meio à globalização da economia e ao contexto político neoliberal, o governo do Estado de São Paulo optou, no período analisado, por seguir as determinações das grandes potências econômicas. O repasse de recursos financeiros recebidos pelo Estado para a efetivação das mudanças educacionais (diminuição da evasão, universalização das matrículas, aumento do número de alunos com aprovação) esteve condicionado às exigências das referidas agências e órgãos internacionais. Como é demonstrado neste trabalho, essa política relega a segundo plano o docente e sua prática de ensino. A explicitação do fundamento da ideologia do bônus no interior da escola pública visa demonstrar, em primeiro lugar, que o Bônus Mérito é um aparente benefício ao docente; e, em segundo lugar, que sua implantação não é outra coisa que o domínio econômico sobre o projeto educacional.

O BÔNUS PROFESSOR

Esta dissertação de mestrado fundamenta-se na pesquisa qualitativa e tem como objetivo a análise da ideologia do Bônus Mérito, instituído para os servidores públicos do Estado de São Paulo no início da década de 2000. Limitamos nossa análise à docência do ensino fundamental. As transformações econômicas, ocorridas a partir da década de 1980 nos países altamente industrializados, passam a exigir a melhoria do ensino dos países emergentes. Em conseqüência, a educação volta a ser revalorizada e a ter papel de destaque para os investimentos externos, através das agências e órgãos internacionais tais como: Bird, Unesco, Banco Mundial, PNUD. A ideologia do Bônus Mérito é um exemplo típico de transferência para o âmbito educacional de modelos de gestão das empresas privadas. Esta ideologia afeta a atividade docente, cujo desempenho é, doravante medido através de pontos, divisão de trabalho, impessoalidade, requalificação profissional etc. Efetivamente, em meio à globalização da economia e ao contexto político neoliberal, o governo do Estado de São Paulo optou, no período analisado, por seguir as determinações das grandes potências econômicas. O repasse de recursos financeiros recebidos pelo Estado para a efetivação das mudanças educacionais (diminuição da evasão, universalização das matrículas, aumento do número de alunos com aprovação) esteve condicionado às exigências das referidas agências e órgãos internacionais. Como é demonstrado neste trabalho, essa política relega a segundo plano o docente e sua prática de ensino. A explicitação do fundamento da ideologia do bônus no interior da escola pública visa demonstrar, em primeiro lugar, que o Bônus Mérito é um aparente benefício ao docente; e, em segundo lugar, que sua implantação não é outra coisa que o domínio econômico sobre o projeto educacional.