Computer workstation vetting by supply current monitoring

It is our goal within this project to develop a powerful electronic system capable to claim, with high certainty, that a malicious software is running (or not) along with the workstations’ normal activity. The new product will be based on measurement of the supply current taken by a workstation from the grid. Unique technique is proposed within these proceedings that analyses the supply current to produce information about the state of the workstation and to generate information of the presence of malicious software running along with the rightful applications. The testing is based on comparison of the behavior of a fault-free workstation (established i advance) and the behavior of the potentially faulty device.

Co-simulation Methodologies for Hybrid and Electric Vehicle Dynamics

In recent decades, full electric and hybrid electric vehicles have emerged as an alternative to conventional cars due to a range of factors, including environmental and economic aspects. These vehicles are the result of considerable efforts to seek ways of reducing the use of fossil fuel for vehicle propulsion. Sophisticated technologies such as hybrid and electric powertrains require careful study and optimization. Mathematical models play a key role at this point. Currently, many advanced mathematical analysis tools, as well as computer applications have been built for vehicle simulation purposes. Given the great interest of hybrid and electric powertrains, along with the increasing importance of reliable computer-based models, the author decided to integrate both aspects in the research purpose of this work. Furthermore, this is one of the first final degree projects held at the ETSII (Higher Technical School of Industrial Engineers) that covers the study of hybrid and electric propulsion systems. The present project is based on MBS3D 2.0, a specialized software for the dynamic simulation of multibody systems developed at the UPM Institute of Automobile Research (INSIA). Automobiles are a clear example of complex multibody systems, which are present in nearly every field of engineering. The work presented here benefits from the availability of MBS3D software. This program has proven to be a very efficient tool, with a highly developed underlying mathematical formulation. On this basis, the focus of this project is the extension of MBS3D features in order to be able to perform dynamic simulations of hybrid and electric vehicle models. This requires the joint simulation of the mechanical model of the vehicle, together with the model of the hybrid or electric powertrain. These sub-models belong to completely different physical domains. In fact the powertrain consists of energy storage systems, electrical machines and power electronics, connected to purely mechanical components (wheels, suspension, transmission, clutch…). The challenge today is to create a global vehicle model that is valid for computer simulation. Therefore, the main goal of this project is to apply co-simulation methodologies to a comprehensive model of an electric vehicle, where sub-models from different areas of engineering are coupled. The created electric vehicle (EV) model consists of a separately excited DC electric motor, a Li-ion battery pack, a DC/DC chopper converter and a multibody vehicle model. Co-simulation techniques allow car designers to simulate complex vehicle architectures and behaviors, which are usually difficult to implement in a real environment due to safety and/or economic reasons. In addition, multi-domain computational models help to detect the effects of different driving patterns and parameters and improve the models in a fast and effective way. Automotive designers can greatly benefit from a multidisciplinary approach of new hybrid and electric vehicles. In this case, the global electric vehicle model includes an electrical subsystem and a mechanical subsystem. The electrical subsystem consists of three basic components: electric motor, battery pack and power converter. A modular representation is used for building the dynamic model of the vehicle drivetrain. This means that every component of the drivetrain (submodule) is modeled separately and has its own general dynamic model, with clearly defined inputs and outputs. Then, all the particular submodules are assembled according to the drivetrain configuration and, in this way, the power flow across the components is completely determined. Dynamic models of electrical components are often based on equivalent circuits, where Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws are applied to draw the algebraic and differential equations. Here, Randles circuit is used for dynamic modeling of the battery and the electric motor is modeled through the analysis of the equivalent circuit of a separately excited DC motor, where the power converter is included. The mechanical subsystem is defined by MBS3D equations. These equations consider the position, velocity and acceleration of all the bodies comprising the vehicle multibody system. MBS3D 2.0 is entirely written in MATLAB and the structure of the program has been thoroughly studied and understood by the author. MBS3D software is adapted according to the requirements of the applied co-simulation method. Some of the core functions are modified, such as integrator and graphics, and several auxiliary functions are added in order to compute the mathematical model of the electrical components. By coupling and co-simulating both subsystems, it is possible to evaluate the dynamic interaction among all the components of the drivetrain. ‘Tight-coupling’ method is used to cosimulate the sub-models. This approach integrates all subsystems simultaneously and the results of the integration are exchanged by function-call. This means that the integration is done jointly for the mechanical and the electrical subsystem, under a single integrator and then, the speed of integration is determined by the slower subsystem. Simulations are then used to show the performance of the developed EV model. However, this project focuses more on the validation of the computational and mathematical tool for electric and hybrid vehicle simulation. For this purpose, a detailed study and comparison of different integrators within the MATLAB environment is done. Consequently, the main efforts are directed towards the implementation of co-simulation techniques in MBS3D software. In this regard, it is not intended to create an extremely precise EV model in terms of real vehicle performance, although an acceptable level of accuracy is achieved. The gap between the EV model and the real system is filled, in a way, by introducing the gas and brake pedals input, which reflects the actual driver behavior. This input is included directly in the differential equations of the model, and determines the amount of current provided to the electric motor. For a separately excited DC motor, the rotor current is proportional to the traction torque delivered to the car wheels. Therefore, as it occurs in the case of real vehicle models, the propulsion torque in the mathematical model is controlled through acceleration and brake pedal commands. The designed transmission system also includes a reduction gear that adapts the torque coming for the motor drive and transfers it. The main contribution of this project is, therefore, the implementation of a new calculation path for the wheel torques, based on performance characteristics and outputs of the electric powertrain model. Originally, the wheel traction and braking torques were input to MBS3D through a vector directly computed by the user in a MATLAB script. Now, they are calculated as a function of the motor current which, in turn, depends on the current provided by the battery pack across the DC/DC chopper converter. The motor and battery currents and voltages are the solutions of the electrical ODE (Ordinary Differential Equation) system coupled to the multibody system. Simultaneously, the outputs of MBS3D model are the position, velocity and acceleration of the vehicle at all times. The motor shaft speed is computed from the output vehicle speed considering the wheel radius, the gear reduction ratio and the transmission efficiency. This motor shaft speed, somehow available from MBS3D model, is then introduced in the differential equations corresponding to the electrical subsystem. In this way, MBS3D and the electrical powertrain model are interconnected and both subsystems exchange values resulting as expected with tight-coupling approach.When programming mathematical models of complex systems, code optimization is a key step in the process. A way to improve the overall performance of the integration, making use of C/C++ as an alternative programming language, is described and implemented. Although this entails a higher computational burden, it leads to important advantages regarding cosimulation speed and stability. In order to do this, it is necessary to integrate MATLAB with another integrated development environment (IDE), where C/C++ code can be generated and executed. In this project, C/C++ files are programmed in Microsoft Visual Studio and the interface between both IDEs is created by building C/C++ MEX file functions. These programs contain functions or subroutines that can be dynamically linked and executed from MATLAB. This process achieves reductions in simulation time up to two orders of magnitude. The tests performed with different integrators, also reveal the stiff character of the differential equations corresponding to the electrical subsystem, and allow the improvement of the cosimulation process. When varying the parameters of the integration and/or the initial conditions of the problem, the solutions of the system of equations show better dynamic response and stability, depending on the integrator used. Several integrators, with variable and non-variable step-size, and for stiff and non-stiff problems are applied to the coupled ODE system. Then, the results are analyzed, compared and discussed. From all the above, the project can be divided into four main parts: 1. Creation of the equation-based electric vehicle model; 2. Programming, simulation and adjustment of the electric vehicle model; 3. Application of co-simulation methodologies to MBS3D and the electric powertrain subsystem; and 4. Code optimization and study of different integrators. Additionally, in order to deeply understand the context of the project, the first chapters include an introduction to basic vehicle dynamics, current classification of hybrid and electric vehicles and an explanation of the involved technologies such as brake energy regeneration, electric and non-electric propulsion systems for EVs and HEVs (hybrid electric vehicles) and their control strategies. Later, the problem of dynamic modeling of hybrid and electric vehicles is discussed. The integrated development environment and the simulation tool are also briefly described. The core chapters include an explanation of the major co-simulation methodologies and how they have been programmed and applied to the electric powertrain model together with the multibody system dynamic model. Finally, the last chapters summarize the main results and conclusions of the project and propose further research topics. In conclusion, co-simulation methodologies are applicable within the integrated development environments MATLAB and Visual Studio, and the simulation tool MBS3D 2.0, where equation-based models of multidisciplinary subsystems, consisting of mechanical and electrical components, are coupled and integrated in a very efficient way.

Fatiga en CFRP: Caracterización y Método Óptico para la Estimación del Daño

El desarrollo de nuevas estructuras aeroespaciales optimizadas, utilizan materiales compuestos, para los componentes críticos y subsistemas, principalmente polímeros reforzados con fibra de carbono (CFRP). Un conocimiento profundo del estado de daño por fatiga de estructuras de CFRP avanzado, es esencial para predecir la vida residual y optimizar los intervalos de inspección estructural, reparaciones y/o sustitución de componentes. Las técnicas actuales se basan principalmente en la medición de cargas estructurales a lo largo de la vida útil de la estructura mediante galgas extensométricas eléctricas. Con esos datos, se estima la vida a fatiga utilizando modelos de acumulación de daño. En la presente tesis, se evalúa la metodología convencional para la estimación de la vida a fatiga de un CFRP aeronáutico. Esta metodología está basada en la regla de acumulación de daño lineal de Palmgren-Miner, y es aplicada para determinar la vida a fatiga de estructuras sometidas a cargas de amplitud variable. Se ha realizado una campaña de ensayos con cargas de amplitud constante para caracterizar un CFRP aeronáutico a fatiga, obteniendo las curvas clásicas S-N, en diferentes relaciones de esfuerzo. Se determinaron los diagramas de vida constante, (CLD), también conocidos como diagramas de Goodman, utilizando redes neuronales artificiales debido a la ausencia de modelos coherentes para materiales compuestos. Se ha caracterizado la degradación de la rigidez debido al daño por fatiga. Se ha ensayado un segundo grupo de probetas con secuencias estandarizadas de cargas de amplitud variable, para obtener la vida a fatiga y la degradación de rigidez en condiciones realistas. Las cargas aplicadas son representativas de misiones de aviones de combate (Falstaff), y de aviones de transporte (Twist). La vida a fatiga de las probetas cicladas con cargas de amplitud variable, se comparó con el índice de daño teórico calculado en base a la regla de acumulación de daño lineal convencional. Los resultados obtenidos muestran predicciones no conservativas. Esta tesis también presenta el estudio y desarrollo, de una nueva técnica de no contacto para evaluar el estado de daño por fatiga de estructuras de CFRP por medio de cambios de los parámetros de rugosidad. La rugosidad superficial se puede medir fácilmente en campo con métodos sin contacto, mediante técnicas ópticas tales como speckle y perfilómetros ópticos. En el presente estudio, se han medido parámetros de rugosidad superficial, y el factor de irregularidad de la superficie, a lo largo de la vida de las probetas cicladas con cargas de amplitud constante y variable, Se ha obtenido una buena tendencia de ajuste al correlacionar la magnitud de la rugosidad y el factor de irregularidad de la superficie con la degradación de la rigidez de las probetas fatigadas. Estos resultados sugieren que los cambios en la rugosidad superficial medida en zonas estratégicas de componentes y estructuras hechas de CFRP, podrían ser indicativas del nivel de daño interno debido a cargas de fatiga. Los resultados también sugieren que el método es independiente del tipo de carga de fatiga que ha causado el daño. Esto último hace que esta técnica de medición sea aplicable como inspección para una amplia gama de estructuras de materiales compuestos, desde tanques presurizados con cargas de amplitud constante, estructuras aeronáuticas como alas y colas de aeronaves cicladas con cargas de amplitud variable, hasta aplicaciones industriales como automoción, entre otros. ABSTRACT New optimized aerospace structures use composite materials, mainly carbon fiber reinforced polymer composite (CFRP), for critical components and subsystems. A strong knowledge of the fatigue state of highly advanced (CFRP) structures is essential to predict the residual life and optimize intervals of structural inspection, repairs, and/or replacements. Current techniques are based mostly on measurement of structural loads throughout the service life by electric strain gauge sensors. These sensors are affected by extreme environmental conditions and by fatigue loads in such a way that the sensors and their systems require exhaustive maintenance throughout system life. In the present thesis, the conventional methodology based on linear damage accumulation rules, applied to determine the fatigue life of structures subjected to variable amplitude loads was evaluated for an aeronautical CFRP. A test program with constant amplitude loads has been performed to obtain the classical S-N curves at different stress ratios. Constant life diagrams, CLDs, where determined by means of Artificial Neural Networks due to the absence of consistent models for composites. The stiffness degradation due to fatigue damage has been characterized for coupons under cyclic tensile loads. A second group of coupons have been tested until failure with a standardized sequence of variable amplitude loads, representative of missions for combat aircraft (Falstaff), and representative of commercial flights (Twist), to obtain the fatigue life and the stiffness degradation under realistic conditions. The fatigue life of the coupons cycled with variable amplitude loads were compared to the theoretical damage index calculated based on the conventional linear damage accumulation rule. The obtained results show non-conservative predictions. This thesis also presents the evaluation of a new non-contact technique to evaluate the fatigue damage state of CFRP structures by means of measuring roughness parameters to evaluate changes in the surface topography. Surface roughness can be measured easily on field with non-contact methods by optical techniques such as speckle and optical perfilometers. In the present study, surface roughness parameters, and the surface irregularity factor, have been measured along the life of the coupons cycled with constant and variable amplitude loads of different magnitude. A good agreement has been obtained when correlating the magnitude of the roughness and the surface irregularity factor with the stiffness degradation. These results suggest that the changes on the surface roughness measured in strategic zones of components and structures made of CFRP, could be indicative of the level of internal damage due to fatigue loads. The results also suggest that the method is independent of the type of fatigue load that have caused the damage. It makes this measurement technique applicable for a wide range of inspections of composite materials structures, from pressurized tanks with constant amplitude loads, to variable amplitude loaded aeronautical structures like wings and empennages, up to automotive and other industrial applications.

Caracterización del hormigón en relación a la difusión de gases y su correlación con el radón

Radon gas (Rn) is a natural radioactive gas present in some soils and able to penetrate buildings through the building envelope in contact with the soil. Radon can accumulate within buildings and consequently be inhaled by their occupants. Because it is a radioactive gas, its disintegration process produces alpha particles that, in contact with the lung epithelia, can produce alterations potentially giving rise to cancer. Many international organizations related to health protection, such as WHO, confirm this causality. One way to avoid the accumulation of radon in buildings is to use the building envelope as a radon barrier. The extent to which concrete provides such a barrier is described by its radon diffusion coefficient (DRn), a parameter closely related to porosity (ɛ) and tortuosity factor (τ). The measurement of the radon diffusion coefficient presents challenges, due to the absence of standard procedures, the requirement to establish adequate airtightness in testing apparatus (referred to here as the diffusion cell), and due to the fact that measurement has to be carried out in an environment certified for use of radon calibrated sources. In addition to this calibrated radon sources are costly. The measurement of the diffusion coefficient for non-radioactive gas is less complex, but nevertheless retains a degree of difficulty due to the need to provide reliably airtight apparatus for all tests. Other parameters that can characterize and describe the process of gas transport through concrete include the permeability coefficient (K) and the electrical resistivity (ρe), both of which can be measured relatively easily with standardized procedure. The use of these parameters would simplify the characterization of concrete behaviour as a radon barrier. Although earlier studies exist, describing correlation among these parameters, there is, as has been observed in the literature, little common ground between the various research efforts. For precisely this reason, prior to any attempt to measure radon diffusion, it was deemed necessary to carry out further research in this area, as a foundation to the current work, to explore potential relationships among the following parameters: porosity-tortuosity, oxygen diffusion coefficient, permeability coefficient and resistivity. Permeability coefficient measurement (m2) presents a more straightforward challenge than diffusion coefficient measurement. Some authors identify a relationship between both coefficients, including Gaber (1988), who proposes: k= a•Dn Equation 1 Where: a=A/(8ΠD020), A = sample cross-section, D020 = diffusion coefficient in air (m2/s). Other studies (Klink et al. 1999, Gaber and Schlattner 1997, Gräf and Grube et al. 1986), experimentally relate both coefficients of different types of concrete confirming that this relationship exists, as represented by the simplified expression: k≈Dn Equation 2 In each particular study a different value for n was established, varying from 1.3 to 2.5, but this requires determination of a value for n in a more general way because these proposed models cannot estimate diffusion coefficient. If diffusion coefficient has to be measured to be able to establish n, these relationships are not interesting. The measurement of electric resistivity is easier than diffusion coefficient measurement. Correlation between the parameters can be established via Einstein´s law that relates movement of electrical charges to media conductivity according to the expression: D_e=k/ρ Equation 3 Where: De = diffusion coefficient (cm2/s), K = constant, ρ = electric resistivity (Ω•cm). The tortuosity factor is used to represent the uneven geometry of concrete pores, which are described as being not straight, but tortuous. This factor was first introduced in the literature to relate global porosity with fluid transport in a porous media, and can be formulated in a number of different ways. For example, it can take the form of equation 4 (Mason y Malinauskas), which combines molecular and Knudsen diffusion using the tortuosity factor: D=ε^τ (3/2r √(πM/8RT+1/D_0 ))^(-1) Equation 4 Where: r = medium radius obtained from MIP (µm), M = gas molecular mass, R = ideal gases constant, T = temperature (K), D0 = coefficient diffusion in the air (m2/s). Few studies provide any insight as to how to obtain the tortuosity factor. The work of Andrade (2012) is exceptional in this sense, as it outlines how the tortuosity factor can be deduced from pore size distribution (from MIP) from the equation: ∅_th=∅_0•ε^(-τ). Equation 5 Where: Øth = threshold diameter (µm), Ø0 = minimum diameter (µm), ɛ = global porosity, τ = tortuosity factor. Alternatively, the following equation may be used to obtain the tortuosity factor: DO2=D0*ɛτ Equation 6 Where: DO2 = oxygen diffusion coefficient obtained experimentally (m2/s), DO20 = oxygen diffusion coefficient in the air (m2/s). This equation has been inferred from Archie´s law ρ_e=〖a•ρ〗_0•ɛ^(-m) and from the Einstein law mentioned above, using the values of oxygen diffusion coefficient obtained experimentally. The principal objective of the current study was to establish correlations between the different parameters that characterize gas transport through concrete. The achievement of this goal will facilitate the assessment of the useful life of concrete, as well as open the door to the pro-active planning for the use of concrete as a radon barrier. Two further objectives were formulated within the current study: 1.- To develop a method for measurement of gas coefficient diffusion in concrete. 2.- To model an analytic estimation of radon diffusion coefficient from parameters related to concrete porosity and tortuosity factor. In order to assess the possible correlations, parameters have been measured using the standardized procedures or purpose-built in the laboratory for the study of equations 1, 2 y 3. To measure the gas diffusion coefficient, a diffusion cell was designed and manufactured, with the design evolving over several cycles of research, leading ultimately to a unit that is reliably air tight. The analytic estimation of the radon diffusion coefficient DRn in concrete is based on concrete global porosity (ɛ), whose values may be experimentally obtained from a mercury intrusion porosimetry test (MIP), and from its tortuosity factor (τ), derived using the relations expressed in equations 5 y 6. The conclusions of the study are: Several models based on regressions, for concrete with a relative humidity of 50%, have been proposed to obtain the diffusion coefficient following the equations K=Dn, K=a*Dn y D=n/ρe. The final of these three relations is the one with the determination coefficient closest to a value of 1: D=(19,997*LNɛ+59,354)/ρe Equation 7 The values of the obtained oxygen diffusion coefficient adjust quite well to those experimentally measured. The proposed method for the measurement of the gas coefficient diffusion is considered to be adequate. The values obtained for the oxygen diffusion coefficient are within the range of those proposed by the literature (10-7 a 10-8 m2/s), and are consistent with the other studied parameters. Tortuosity factors obtained using pore distribution and the expression Ø=Ø0*ɛ-τ are inferior to those from resistivity ρ=ρ0*ɛ-τ. The closest relationship to it is the one with porosity of pore diameter 1 µm (τ=2,07), being 7,21% inferior. Tortuosity factors obtained from the expression DO2=D0*ɛτ are similar to those from resistivity: for global tortuosity τ=2,26 and for the rest of porosities τ=0,7. Estimated radon diffusion coefficients are within the range of those consulted in literature (10-8 a 10-10 m2/s).ABSTRACT El gas radón (Rn) es un gas natural radioactivo presente en algunos terrenos que puede penetrar en los edificios a través de los cerramientos en contacto con el mismo. En los espacios interiores se puede acumular y ser inhalado por las personas. Al ser un gas radioactivo, en su proceso de desintegración emite partículas alfa que, al entrar en contacto con el epitelio pulmonar, pueden producir alteraciones del mismo causando cáncer. Muchos organismos internacionales relacionados con la protección de la salud, como es la OMS, confirman esta causalidad. Una de las formas de evitar que el radón penetre en los edificios es utilizando las propiedades de barrera frente al radón de su propia envolvente en contacto con el terreno. La principal característica del hormigón que confiere la propiedad de barrera frente al radón cuando conforma esta envolvente es su permeabilidad que se puede caracterizar mediante su coeficiente de difusión (DRn). El coeficiente de difusión de un gas en el hormigón es un parámetro que está muy relacionado con su porosidad (ɛ) y su tortuosidad (τ). La medida del coeficiente de difusión del radón resulta bastante complicada debido a que el procedimiento no está normalizado, a que es necesario asegurar una estanquidad a la celda de medida de la difusión y a que la medida tiene que ser realizada en un laboratorio cualificado para el uso de fuentes de radón calibradas, que además son muy caras. La medida del coeficiente de difusión de gases no radioactivos es menos compleja, pero sigue teniendo un alto grado de dificultad puesto que tampoco está normalizada, y se sigue teniendo el problema de lograr una estanqueidad adecuada de la celda de difusión. Otros parámetros que pueden caracterizar el proceso son el coeficiente de permeabilidad (K) y la resistividad eléctrica (ρe), que son más fáciles de determinar mediante ensayos que sí están normalizados. El uso de estos parámetros facilitaría la caracterización del hormigón como barrera frente al radón, pero aunque existen algunos estudios que proponen correlaciones entre estos parámetros, en general existe divergencias entre los investigadores, como se ha podido comprobar en la revisión bibliográfica realizada. Por ello, antes de tratar de medir la difusión del radón se ha considerado necesario realizar más estudios que puedan clarificar las posibles relaciones entre los parámetros: porosidad-tortuosidad, coeficiente de difusión del oxígeno, coeficiente de permeabilidad y resistividad. La medida del coeficiente de permeabilidad (m2) es más sencilla que el de difusión. Hay autores que relacionan el coeficiente de permeabilidad con el de difusión. Gaber (1988) propone la siguiente relación: k= a•Dn Ecuación 1 En donde: a=A/(8ΠD020), A = sección de la muestra, D020 = coeficiente de difusión en el aire (m2/s). Otros estudios (Klink et al. 1999, Gaber y Schlattner 1997, Gräf y Grube et al. 1986) relacionan de forma experimental los coeficientes de difusión de radón y de permeabilidad de distintos hormigones confirmando que existe una relación entre ambos parámetros, utilizando la expresión simplificada: k≈Dn Ecuación 2 En cada estudio concreto se han encontrado distintos valores para n que van desde 1,3 a 2,5 lo que lleva a la necesidad de determinar n porque no hay métodos que eviten la determinación del coeficiente de difusión. Si se mide la difusión ya deja de ser de interés la medida indirecta a través de la permeabilidad. La medida de la resistividad eléctrica es muchísimo más sencilla que la de la difusión. La relación entre ambos parámetros se puede establecer a través de una de las leyes de Einstein que relaciona el movimiento de cargas eléctricas con la conductividad del medio según la siguiente expresión: D_e=k/ρ_e Ecuación 3 En donde: De = coeficiente de difusión (cm2/s), K = constante, ρe = resistividad eléctrica (Ω•cm). El factor de tortuosidad es un factor de forma que representa la irregular geometría de los poros del hormigón, al no ser rectos sino tener una forma tortuosa. Este factor se introduce en la literatura para relacionar la porosidad total con el transporte de un fluido en un medio poroso y se puede formular de distintas formas. Por ejemplo se destaca la ecuación 4 (Mason y Malinauskas) que combina la difusión molecular y la de Knudsen utilizando el factor de tortuosidad: D=ε^τ (3/2r √(πM/8RT+1/D_0 ))^(-1) Ecuación 4 En donde: r = radio medio obtenido del MIP (µm), M = peso molecular del gas, R = constante de los gases ideales, T = temperatura (K), D0 = coeficiente de difusión de un gas en el aire (m2/s). No hay muchos estudios que proporcionen una forma de obtener este factor de tortuosidad. Destaca el estudio de Andrade (2012) en el que deduce el factor de tortuosidad de la distribución del tamaño de poros (curva de porosidad por intrusión de mercurio) a partir de la ecuación: ∅_th=∅_0•ε^(-τ) Ecuación 5 En donde: Øth = diámetro umbral (µm), Ø0 = diámetro mínimo (µm), ɛ = porosidad global, τ = factor de tortuosidad. Por otro lado, se podría utilizar también para obtener el factor de tortuosidad la relación: DO2=D0*-τ Ecuación 6 En donde: DO2 = coeficiente de difusión del oxígeno experimental (m2/s), DO20 = coeficiente de difusión del oxígeno en el aire (m2/s). Esta ecuación está inferida de la ley de Archie ρ_e=〖a•ρ〗_0•ɛ^(-m) y la de Einstein mencionada anteriormente, utilizando valores del coeficiente de difusión del oxígeno DO2 obtenidos experimentalmente. El objetivo fundamental de la tesis es encontrar correlaciones entre los distintos parámetros que caracterizan el transporte de gases a través del hormigón. La consecución de este objetivo facilitará la evaluación de la vida útil del hormigón así como otras posibilidades, como la evaluación del hormigón como elemento que pueda ser utilizado en la construcción de nuevos edificios como barrera frente al gas radón presente en el terreno. Se plantean también los siguientes objetivos parciales en la tesis: 1.- Elaborar una metodología para la medida del coeficiente de difusión de los gases en el hormigón. 2.- Plantear una estimación analítica del coeficiente de difusión del radón a partir de parámetros relacionados con su porosidad y su factor de tortuosidad. Para el estudio de las correlaciones posibles, se han medido los parámetros con los procedimientos normalizados o puestos a punto en el propio Instituto, y se han estudiado las reflejadas en las ecuaciones 1, 2 y 3. Para la medida del coeficiente de difusión de gases se ha fabricado una celda que ha exigido una gran variedad de detalles experimentales con el fin de hacerla estanca. Para la estimación analítica del coeficiente de difusión del radón DRn en el hormigón se ha partido de su porosidad global (ɛ), que se obtiene experimentalmente del ensayo de porosimetría por intrusión de mercurio (MIP), y de su factor de tortuosidad (τ), que se ha obtenido a partir de las relaciones reflejadas en las ecuaciones 5 y 6. Las principales conclusiones obtenidas son las siguientes: Se proponen modelos basados en regresiones, para un acondicionamiento con humedad relativa de 50%, para obtener el coeficiente de difusión del oxígeno según las relaciones: K=Dn, K=a*Dn y D=n/ρe. La propuesta para esta última relación es la que tiene un mejor ajuste con R2=0,999: D=(19,997*LNɛ+59,354)/ρe Ecuación 7 Los valores del coeficiente de difusión del oxígeno así estimados se ajustan a los obtenidos experimentalmente. Se considera adecuado el método propuesto de medida del coeficiente de difusión para gases. Los resultados obtenidos para el coeficiente de difusión del oxígeno se encuentran dentro del rango de los consultados en la literatura (10-7 a 10-8 m2/s) y son coherentes con el resto de parámetros estudiados. Los resultados de los factores de tortuosidad obtenidos de la relación Ø=Ø0*ɛ-τ son inferiores a la de la resistividad (ρ=ρ0*ɛ-τ). La relación que más se ajusta a ésta, siendo un 7,21% inferior, es la de la porosidad correspondiente al diámetro 1 µm con τ=2,07. Los resultados de los factores de tortuosidad obtenidos de la relación DO2=D0*ɛτ son similares a la de la resistividad: para la porosidad global τ=2,26 y para el resto de porosidades τ=0,7. Los coeficientes de difusión de radón estimados mediante estos factores de tortuosidad están dentro del rango de los consultados en la literatura (10-8 a 10-10 m2/s).

Analysis and Design Considerations of an Electric Vehicle Powertrain regarding Energy Efficiency and Magnetic Field Exposure

En esta tesis se analiza el sistema de tracción de un vehículo eléctrico de batería desde el punto de vista de la eficiencia energética y de la exposición a campos magnéticos por parte de los pasajeros (radiación electromagnética). Este estudio incluye tanto el sistema de almacenamiento de energía como la máquina eléctrica, junto con la electrónica de potencia y los sistemas de control asociados a ambos. Los análisis y los resultados presentados en este texto están basados en modelos matemáticos, simulaciones por ordenador y ensayos experimentales a escala de laboratorio. La investigación llevada a cabo durante esta tesis tuvo siempre un marcado enfoque industrial, a pesar de estar desarrollada en un entorno de considerable carácter universitario. Las líneas de investigación acometidas tuvieron como destinatario final al diseñador y al fabricante del vehículo, a pesar de lo cual algunos de los resultados obtenidos son preliminares y/o excesivamente académicos para resultar de interés industrial. En el ámbito de la eficiencia energética, esta tesis estudia sistemas híbridos de almacenamiento de energía basados en una combinación de baterías de litio y supercondensadores. Este tipo de sistemas son analizados desde el punto de vista de la eficiencia mediante modelos matemáticos y simulaciones, cuantificando el impacto de ésta en otros parámetros tales como el envejecimiento de las baterías. Respecto a la máquina eléctrica, el estudio se ha centrado en máquinas síncronas de imanes permanentes. El análisis de la eficiencia considera tanto el diseño de la máquina como la estrategia de control, dejando parcialmente de lado el inversor y la técnica de modulación (que son incluidos en el estudio como fuentes adicionales de pérdidas, pero no como potenciales fuentes de optimización de la eficiencia). En este sentido, tanto la topología del inversor (trifásico, basado en IGBTs) como la técnica de modulación (control de corriente en banda de histéresis) se establecen desde el principio. El segundo aspecto estudiado en esta tesis es la exposición a campos magnéticos por parte de los pasajeros. Este tema se enfoca desde un punto de vista predictivo, y no desde un punto de vista de diagnóstico, puesto que se ha desarrollado una metodología para estimar el campo magnético generado por los dispositivos de potencia de un vehículo eléctrico. Esta metodología ha sido validada mediante ensayos de laboratorio. Otros aspectos importantes de esta contribución, además de la metodología en sí misma, son las consecuencias que se derivan de ella (por ejemplo, recomendaciones de diseño) y la comprensión del problema proporcionada por esta. Las principales contribuciones de esta tesis se listan a continuación: una recopilación de modelos de pérdidas correspondientes a la mayoría de dispositivos de potencia presentes en un vehículo eléctrico de batería, una metodología para analizar el funcionamiento de un sistema híbrido de almacenamiento de energía para aplicaciones de tracción, una explicación de cómo ponderar energéticamente los puntos de operación par-velocidad de un vehículo eléctrico (de utilidad para evaluar el rendimiento de una máquina eléctrica, por ejemplo), una propuesta de incluir un convertidor DC-DC en el sistema de tracción para minimizar las pérdidas globales del accionamiento (a pesar de las nuevas pérdidas introducidas por el propio DC-DC), una breve comparación entre dos tipos distintos de algoritmos de minimización de pérdidas para máquinas síncronas de imanes permanentes, una metodología predictiva para estimar la exposición a campos magnéticos por parte de los pasajeros de un vehículo eléctrico (debida a los equipos de potencia), y finalmente algunas conclusiones y recomendaciones de diseño respecto a dicha exposición a campos magnéticos. ABSTRACT This dissertation analyzes the powertrain of a battery electric vehicle, focusing on energy efficiency and passenger exposure to electromagnetic fields (electromagnetic radiation). This study comprises the energy storage system as well as the electric machine, along with their associated power electronics and control systems. The analysis and conclusions presented in this dissertation are based on mathematical models, computer simulations and laboratory scale tests. The research performed during this thesis was intended to be of industrial nature, despite being developed in a university. In this sense, the work described in this document was carried out thinking of both the designer and the manufacturer of the vehicle. However, some of the results obtained lack industrial readiness, and therefore they remain utterly academic. Regarding energy efficiency, hybrid energy storage systems consisting in lithium batteries, supercapacitors and up to two DC-DC power converters are considered. These kind of systems are analyzed by means of mathematical models and simulations from the energy efficiency point of view, quantifying its impact on other relevant aspects such as battery aging. Concerning the electric machine, permanent magnet synchronous machines are studied in this work. The energy efficiency analysis comprises the machine design and the control strategy, while the inverter and its modulation technique are taken into account but only as sources of further power losses, and not as potential sources for further efficiency optimization. In this sense, both the inverter topology (3-phase IGBT-based inverter) and the switching technique (hysteresis current control) are fixed from the beginning. The second aspect studied in this work is passenger exposure to magnetic fields. This topic is approached from the prediction point of view, rather than from the diagnosis point of view. In other words, a methodology to estimate the magnetic field generated by the power devices of an electric vehicle is proposed and analyzed in this dissertation. This methodology has been validated by laboratory tests. The most important aspects of this contribution, apart from the methodology itself, are the consequences (for instance, design guidelines) and the understanding of the magnetic radiation issue provided by it. The main contributions of this dissertation are listed next: a compilation of loss models for most of the power devices found in a battery electric vehicle powertrain, a simulation-based methodology to analyze hybrid energy storage performance in traction applications, an explanation of how to assign energy-based weights to different operating points in traction drives (useful when assessing electrical machine performance, for instance), a proposal to include one DC-DC converter in electric powertrains to minimize overall power losses in the system (despite the new losses added by the DC-DC), a brief comparison between two kinds of loss-minimization algorithms for permanent magnet synchronous machines in terms of adaptability and energy efficiency, a predictive methodology to estimate passenger magnetic field exposure due to power devices in an electric vehicle, and finally some useful conclusions and design guidelines concerning magnetic field exposure.

The role of London forces in defining noncentrosymmetric order of high dipole moment–high hyperpolarizability chromophores in electrically poled polymeric thin films

Graphs of second harmonic generation coefficients and electro-optic coefficients (measured by ellipsometry, attenuated total reflection, and two-slit interference modulation) as a function of chromophore number density (chromophore loading) are experimentally observed to exhibit maxima for polymers containing chromophores characterized by large dipole moments and polarizabilities. Modified London theory is used to demonstrated that this behavior can be attributed to the competition of chromophore-applied electric field and chromophore–chromophore electrostatic interactions. The comparison of theoretical and experimental data explains why the promise of exceptional macroscopic second-order optical nonlinearity predicted for organic materials has not been realized and suggests routes for circumventing current limitations to large optical nonlinearity. The results also suggest extensions of measurement and theoretical methods to achieve an improved understanding of intermolecular interactions in condensed phase materials including materials prepared by sequential synthesis and block copolymer methods.

Electric Signaling and Pin2 Gene Expression on Different Abiotic Stimuli Depend on a Distinct Threshold Level of Endogenous Abscisic Acid in Several Abscisic Acid-Deficient Tomato Mutants1

Experiments were performed on three abscisic acid (ABA)-deficient tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) mutants, notabilis, flacca, and sitiens, to investigate the role of ABA and jasmonic acid (JA) in the generation of electrical signals and Pin2 (proteinase inhibitor II) gene expression. We selected these mutants because they contain different levels of endogenous ABA. ABA levels in the mutant sitiens were reduced to 8% of the wild type, in notabilis they were reduced to 47%, and in flacca they were reduced to 21%. In wild-type and notabilis tomato plants the induction of Pin2 gene expression could be elicited by heat treatment, current application, or mechanical wounding. In flacca and sitiens only heat stimulation induced Pin2 gene expression. JA levels in flacca and sitiens plants also accumulated strongly upon heat stimulation but not upon mechanical wounding or current application. Characteristic electrical signals evolved in the wild type and in the notabilis and flacca mutants consisting of a fast action potential and a slow variation potential. However, in sitiens only heat evoked electrical signals; mechanical wounding and current application did not change the membrane potential. In addition, exogenous application of ABA to wild-type tomato plants induced transient changes in membrane potentials, indicating the involvement of ABA in the generation of electrical signals. Our data strongly suggest the presence of a minimum threshold value of ABA within the plant that is essential for the early events in electrical signaling and mediation of Pin2 gene expression upon wounding. In contrast, heat-induced Pin2 gene expression and membrane potential changes were not dependent on the ABA level but, rather, on the accumulation of JA.

Miniature endplate current rise times less than 100 microseconds from improved dual recordings can be modeled with passive acetylcholine diffusion from a synaptic vesicle.

We recorded miniature endplate currents (mEPCs) using simultaneous voltage clamp and extracellular methods, allowing correction for time course measurement errors. We obtained a 20-80% rise time (tr) of approximately 80 micros at 22 degrees C, shorter than any previously reported values, and tr variability (SD) with an upper limit of 25-30 micros. Extracellular electrode pressure can increase tr and its variability by 2- to 3-fold. Using Monte Carlo simulations, we modeled passive acetylcholine diffusion through a vesicle fusion pore expanding radially at 25 nm x ms(-1) (rapid, from endplate omega figure appearance) or 0.275 nm x ms(-1) (slow, from mast cell exocytosis). Simulated mEPCs obtained with rapid expansion reproduced tr and the overall shape of our experimental mEPCs, and were similar to simulated mEPCs obtained with instant acetylcholine release. We conclude that passive transmitter diffusion, coupled with rapid expansion of the fusion pore, is sufficient to explain the time course of experimentally measured synaptic currents with trs of less than 100 micros.

Comprehensive Greenhouse Gas Management for the Electric Generating Industry

Climate change is becoming more visible in the political arena. Electric generating companies will likely be impacted by future regulation of climate change related emissions. Even though few climate related programs are mandatory, electric generating companies should begin to implement greenhouse gas management systems. This report includes a review of issues facing the electric generating industry, an examination of current emission management programs, and recommendations for an effective greenhouse gas management framework. An effective greenhouse gas management program allows a company to continually improve their impact on climate change by reducing emissions using the plan, do, check, act process. To ease the reporting burden, companies should apply de minimis exemptions to sources that produce less than 5% of emissions.

A conceptual map about alternating current circuits

Teachers are deeply concerned on how to be more effective in our task of teaching. We must organize the contents of our specific area providing them with a logical configuration, for which we must know the mental structure of the students that we have in the classroom. We must shape this mental structure, in a progressive manner, so that they can assimilate the contents that we are trying to transfer, to make the learning as meaningful as possible. In the generative learning model, the links before the stimulus delivered by the teacher and the information stored in the mind of the learner requires an important effort by the student, who should build new conceptual meanings. That effort, which is extremely necessary for a good learning, sometimes is the missing ingredient so that the teaching-learning process can be properly assimilated. In electrical circuits, which we know are perfectly controlled and described by Ohm's law and Kirchhoff's two rules, there are two concepts that correspond to the following physical quantities: voltage and electrical resistance. These two concepts are integrated and linked when the concept of current is presented. This concept is not subordinated to the previous ones, it has the same degree of inclusiveness and gives rise to substantial relations between the three concepts, materializing it into a law: The Ohm, which allows us to relate and to calculate any of the three physical magnitudes, two of them known. The alternate current, in which both the voltage and the current are reversed dozens of times per second, plays an important role in many aspects of our modern life, because it is universally used. Its main feature is that its maximum voltage is easily modifiable through the use of transformers, which greatly facilitates its transfer with very few losses. In this paper, we present a conceptual map so that it is used as a new tool to analyze in a logical manner the underlying structure in the alternate current circuits, with the objective of providing the students from Sciences and Engineering majors with another option to try, amongst all, to achieve a significant learning of this important part of physics.

BIDIRECTIONAL AC-DC CONVERTERS USING ONE CYCLE CONTROL (OCC) FOR ELECTRIC VEHICLES

The electric vehicle (EV) market has seen a rapid growth in the recent past. With an increase in the number of electric vehicles on road, there is an increase in the number of high capacity battery banks interfacing the grid. The battery bank of an EV, besides being the fuel tank, is also a huge energy storage unit. Presently, it is used only when the vehicle is being driven and remains idle for rest of the time, rendering it underutilized. Whereas on the other hand, there is a need of large energy storage units in the grid to filter out the fluctuations of supply and demand during a day. EVs can help bridge this gap. The EV battery bank can be used to store the excess energy from the grid to vehicle (G2V) or supply stored energy from the vehicle to grid (V2G ), when required. To let power flow happen, in both directions, a bidirectional AC-DC converter is required. This thesis concentrates on the bidirectional AC-DC converters which have a control on power flow in all four quadrants for the application of EV battery interfacing with the grid. This thesis presents a bidirectional interleaved full bridge converter topology. This helps in increasing the power processing and current handling capability of the converter which makes it suitable for the purpose of EVs. Further, the benefit of using the interleaved topology is that it increases the power density of the converter. This ensures optimization of space usage with the same power handling capacity. The proposed interleaved converter consists of two full bridges. The corresponding gate pulses of each switch, in one cell, are phase shifted by 180 degrees from those of the other cell. The proposed converter control is based on the one-cycle controller. To meet the challenge of new requirements of reactive power handling capabilities for grid connected converters, posed by the utilities, the controller is modified to make it suitable to process the reactive power. A fictitious current derived from the grid voltage is introduced in the controller, which controls the converter performance. The current references are generated using the second order generalized integrators (SOGI) and phase locked loop (PLL). A digital implementation of the proposed control ii scheme is developed and implemented using DSP hardware. The simulated and experimental results, based on the converter topology and control technique discussed here, are presented to show the performance of the proposed theory.

On the Electric Breakdown in Liquid Argon at Centimeter Scale

We present a study on the dependence of electric breakdown discharge properties on electrode geometry and the breakdown field in liquid argon near its boiling point. The measurements were performed with a spherical cathode and a planar anode at distances ranging from 0.1 mm to 10.0 mm. A detailed study of the time evolution of the breakdown volt-ampere characteristics was performed for the first time. It revealed a slow streamer development phase in the discharge. The results of a spectroscopic study of the visible light emission of the breakdowns complement the measurements. The light emission from the initial phase of the discharge is attributed to electro-luminescence of liquid argon following a current of drifting electrons. These results contribute to set benchmarks for breakdown-safe design of ionization detectors, such as Liquid Argon Time Projection Chambers (LAr TPC).

Small car driver inflatable restraint system evaluation. Volume III: investigation of potential crash survivability of a current production subcompact vehicle equipped with an advanced driver restraint system. Final report.

National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Washington, D.C.

Serving the American public : best practices in performance measurement : Benchmarking Study Report /

"June 1997."