Economics of Wheat in Egypt

Este estudio pretende estimar la eficiencia y la productividad de las principales provincias de la producción de trigo en Egipto. Los datos utilizados en este estudio son datos de panel a nivel de provincias del período 1990-2012, obtenidos del Ministerio de Agricultura y Recuperación Tierras, y de la Agencia Central de Movilización Pública y Estadística, Egipto. Se aplica el enfoque de fronteras estocásticas para medir la eficiencia (función de producción de Cobb-Douglas) y se emplean las especificaciones de Battese y Coelli (1992) y (1995). También se utiliza el índice de Malmquist como una aproximación no paramétrica (Análisis de Envolvente de Datos) para descomponer la productividad total de los factores de las principales provincias productoras de trigo en Egipto en cambio técnico y cambio de eficiencia. El coeficiente de tierra es positivo y significativo en los dos especificaciones Battese y Coelli (1992) y (1995), lo que implica que aumentar la tierra para este cultivo aumentaría significativamente la producción de trigo. El coeficiente de trabajo es positivo y significativo en la especificación de Battese y Coelli (1992), mientras que es positivo y no significativo en la especificación de Battese y Coelli (1995). El coeficiente de la maquinaria es negativo y no significativo en las dos especificaciones de Battese y Coelli (1992) y (1995). El coeficiente de cambio técnico es positivo y no significativo en la especificación de Battese y Coelli (1992), mientras que es positiva y significativo en la especificación de Battese y Coelli (1995). Las variables de efectos del modelo de ineficiencia Battese y Coelli (1995) indican que no existe impacto de las diferentes provincias en la producción de trigo en Egipto; la ineficiencia técnica de la producción de trigo tendió a disminuir durante el período de estudio; y no hay ningún impacto de género en la producción de trigo en Egipto. Los niveles de eficiencia técnica varían entre las diferentes provincias para las especificaciones de Battese y Coelli (1992) y (1995); el nivel mínimo medio de eficiencia técnica es 91.61% en la provincia de Fayoum, mientras que el nivel máximo medio de la eficiencia técnica es 98.69% en la provincia de Dakahlia. La eficiencia técnica toma un valor medio de 95.37%, lo que implica poco potencial para mejorar la eficiencia de uso de recursos en la producción de trigo. La TFPCH de la producción de trigo en Egipto durante el período 1990-2012 tiene un valor menor que uno y muestra un declive. Esta disminución es debida más al componente de cambio técnico que al componente de cambio de eficiencia. La disminución de TFPCH mejora con el tiempo. La provincia de Menoufia tiene la menor disminución en TFPCH, 6.5%, mientras que dos provincias, Sharkia y Dakahlia, son las que más disminuyen en TFPCH, 13.1%, en cada uno de ellas. Menos disminución en TFPCH ocurre en el período 2009-2010, 0.3%, mientras que más disminución se produce en TFPCH en el período 1990-1991, 38.9%. La disminución de la PTF de la producción de trigo en Egipto se atribuye principalmente a la mala aplicación de la tecnología. ABSTRACT The objectives of this study are to estimate the efficiency and productivity of the main governorates of wheat production in Egypt. The data used in this study is a panel data at the governorates level, it represents the time period 1990-2012 and taken from the Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation, and the Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics, Egypt. We apply the stochastic frontier approach for efficiency measurement (Cobb-Douglas production function) and the specifications of Battese and Coelli (1992) and (1995) are employed. Also we use Malmquist TFP index as a non-parametric approach (DEA) to decompose total factor productivity of the main governorates of wheat production in Egypt into technical change and efficiency change. The coefficient of land is positive and significant at Battese and Coelli (1992) and (1995) specifications, implying that increasing the wheat area could significantly enhance the production of wheat. The coefficient of labor is positive and significant at Battese and Coelli (1992) specification, while it is positive and insignificant at Battese and Coelli (1995) specification. The coefficient of machinery is negative and insignificant at the specifications of Battese and Coelli (1992) and (1995). The technical change coefficient is positive and insignificant at Battese and Coelli (1992) specification, while it is positive and significant at Battese and Coelli (1995) specification. The variables of the inefficiency effect model indicate that there is no impact from the location of the different governorates on wheat production in Egypt, the technical inefficiency of wheat production tended to decrease through the period of study, and there is no impact from the gender on wheat production in Egypt. The levels of technical efficiency vary among the different governorates for the specifications of Battese and Coelli (1992) and (1995); the minimum mean level of technical efficiency is 91.61% at Fayoum governorate, while the maximum mean level of technical efficiency is 98.69% at Dakahlia governorate. The technical efficiency takes an average value of 95.37%, this implying that little potential exists to improve resource use efficiency in wheat production. The TFPCH of wheat production in Egypt during the time period 1990-2012 has a value less than one and shows a decline; this decline is due mainly to the technical change component than the efficiency change component. The decline in TFPCH is generally improves over time. Menoufia governorate has the least declining in TFPCH by 6.5%, while two governorates, Sharkia and Dakahlia have the most declining in TFPCH by 13.1% for each of them. The least declining in TFPCH occurred at the period 2009- 2010 by 0.3%, while the most declining in TFPCH occurred at the period 1990-1991 by 38.9%. The declining in TFP of wheat production in Egypt is attributed mainly to poor application of technology.

Identification of morc (microrchidia), a mutation that results in arrest of spermatogenesis at an early meiotic stage in the mouse

The microrchidia, or morc, autosomal recessive mutation results in the arrest of spermatogenesis early in prophase I of meiosis. The morc mutation arose spontaneously during the development of a mouse strain transgenic for a tyrosinase cDNA construct. Morc −/− males are infertile and have grossly reduced testicular mass, whereas −/− females are normal, indicating that the Morc gene acts specifically during male gametogenesis. Immunofluorescence to synaptonemal complex antigens demonstrated that −/− male germ cells enter meiosis but fail to progress beyond zygotene or leptotene stage. An apoptosis assay revealed massive numbers of cells undergoing apoptosis in testes of −/− mice. No other abnormal phenotype was observed in mutant animals, with the exception of eye pigmentation caused by transgene expression in the retina. Spermatogenesis is normal in +/− males, despite significant transgene expression in germ cells. Genomic analysis of −/− animals indicates the presence of a deletion adjacent to the transgene. Identification of the gene inactivated by the transgene insertion may define a novel biochemical pathway involved in mammalian germ cell development and meiosis.

Prevention of lymphocyte cell death in sepsis improves survival in mice

Sepsis induces extensive lymphocyte apoptosis, a process which may be beneficial to host survival by down-regulating the inflammatory response or, alternatively, harmful by impairing host defenses. To determine the beneficial vs. adverse effects of lymphocyte apoptosis in sepsis, we blocked lymphocyte apoptosis either by N-benzyloxycarbonyl-Val-Ala-Asp(O-methyl) fluoromethyl ketone (z-VAD), a broad-spectrum caspase inhibitor, or by use of Bcl-2 Ig transgenic mice that selectively overexpress the antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2 in a lymphoid pattern. Both z-VAD and Bcl-2 prevented lymphocyte apoptosis and resulted in a marked improvement in survival. z-VAD did not decrease lymphocyte tumor necrosis factor-α production. Considered together, these two studies employing different methods of blocking lymphocyte apoptosis provide compelling evidence that immunodepression resulting from the loss of lymphocytes is a central pathogenic event in sepsis, and they challenge the current paradigm that regards sepsis as a disorder resulting from an uncontrolled inflammatory response. Caspase inhibitors may represent a treatment strategy in this highly lethal disorder.

A peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ ligand inhibits adipocyte differentiation

The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are nuclear hormone receptors that regulate glucose and lipid homeostasis. The PPARγ subtype plays a central role in the regulation of adipogenesis and is the molecular target for the 2,4-thiazolidinedione class of antidiabetic drugs. Structural studies have revealed that agonist ligands activate the PPARs through direct interactions with the C-terminal region of the ligand-binding domain, which includes the activation function 2 helix. GW0072 was identified as a high-affinity PPARγ ligand that was a weak partial agonist of PPARγ transactivation. X-ray crystallography revealed that GW0072 occupied the ligand-binding pocket by using different epitopes than the known PPAR agonists and did not interact with the activation function 2 helix. In cell culture, GW0072 was a potent antagonist of adipocyte differentiation. These results establish an approach to the design of PPAR ligands with modified biological activities.

A single mutation that increases maize seed weight.

The maize endosperm-specific gene shrunken2 (Sh2) encodes the large subunit of the heterotetrameric starch synthetic enzyme adenosine diphosphoglucose pyrophosphorylase (AGP; EC 2.7.7.27). Here we exploit an in vivo, site-specific mutagenesis system to create short insertion mutations in a region of the gene known to be involved in the allosteric regulation of AGP. The site-specific mutagen is the transposable element dissociation (Ds). Approximately one-third (8 of 23) of the germinal revertants sequenced restored the wild-type sequence, whereas the remaining revertants contained insertions of 3 or 6 bp. All revertants retained the original reading frame 3' to the insertion site and involved the addition of tyrosine and/or serine. Each insertion revertant reduced total AGP activity and the amount of the SH2 protein. The revertant containing additional tyrosine and serine residues increased seed weight 11-18% without increasing or decreasing the percentage of starch. Other insertion revertants lacking an additional serine reduced seed weight. Reduced sensitivity to phosphate, a long-known inhibitor of AGP, was found in the high seed-weight revertant. This alteration is likely universally important since insertion of tyrosine and serine in the potato large subunit of AGP at the comparable position and expression in Escherichia coli also led to a phosphate-insensitive enzyme. These results show that single gene mutations giving rise to increased seed weight, and therefore perhaps yield, are clearly possible in a plant with a long history of intensive and successful breeding efforts.

Cloning of rat MEK kinase 1 cDNA reveals an endogenous membrane-associated 195-kDa protein with a large regulatory domain.

The coding sequence of rat MEK kinase 1 (MEKK1) has been determined from multiple, independent cDNA clones. The cDNA is full-length based on the presence of stop codons in all three reading frames of the 5' untranslated region. Probes from the 5' and the 3' coding sequences both hybridize to a 7-kb mRNA. The open reading frame is 4.5 kb and predicts a protein with molecular mass of 161,225 Da, which is twice the size of the previously published MEKK1 sequence and reveals 801 amino acids of novel coding sequence. The novel sequence contains two putative pH domains, two proline-rich regions, and a cysteine-rich region. Antisera to peptides derived from this new sequence recognize an endogenous protein in human and rodent cells of 195 kDa, consistent with the size of the expressed rat MEKK1 clone. Endogenous and recombinant rat MEKK1 are enriched in membranes; little of either is found in soluble fractions. Expression of recombinant rat MEKK1 leads to activation of three mitogen-activated protein kinase modules in the order c-Jun N-terminal kinase/stress-activated protein kinase > p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase = extracellular signal-regulated kinase 2.

MEKK1 phosphorylates MEK1 and MEK2 but does not cause activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase.

A constitutively active fragment of rat MEK kinase 1 (MEKK1) consisting of only its catalytic domain (MEKK-C) expressed in bacteria quantitatively activates recombinant mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase/extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK) kinases 1 and 2 (MEK1 and MEK2) in vitro. Activation of MEK1 by MEKK-C is accompanied by phosphorylation of S218 and S222, which are also phosphorylated by the protein kinases c-Mos and Raf-1. MEKK1 has been implicated in regulation of a parallel but distinct cascade that leads to phosphorylation of N-terminal sites on c-Jun; thus, its role in the MAP kinase pathway has been questioned. However, in addition to its capacity to phosphorylate MEK1 in vitro, MEKK-C interacts with MEK1 in the two-hybrid system, and expression of mouse MEKK1 or MEKK-C in mammalian cells causes constitutive activation of both MEK1 and MEK2. Neither cotransfected nor endogenous ERK2 is highly activated by MEKK1 compared to its stimulation by epidermal growth factor in spite of significant activation of endogenous MEK. Thus, other as yet undefined mechanisms may be involved in determining information flow through the MAP kinase and related pathways.

Shk1, a homolog of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae Ste20 and mammalian p65PAK protein kinases, is a component of a Ras/Cdc42 signaling module in the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe.

We describe a protein kinase, Shk1, from the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, which is structurally related to the Saccharomyces cerevisiae Ste20 and mammalian p65PAK protein kinases. We provide genetic evidence for physical and functional interaction between Shk1 and the Cdc42 GTP-binding protein required for normal cell morphology and mating in S. pombe. We further show that expression of the STE20 gene complements the shk1 null mutation and that Shk1 is capable of signaling to the pheromone-responsive mitogen-activated protein kinase cascade in S. cerevisiae. Our results lead us to propose that signaling modules composed of small GTP-binding proteins and protein kinases related to Shk1, Ste20, and p65PAK, are highly conserved in evolution and participate in both cytoskeletal functions and mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathways.

Determinação de biomarcadores de aflatoxina B1 e aplicabilidade na avaliação da eficiência de adsorventes em frangos de corte

As aflatoxinas são metabólitos secundários produzidos por fungos toxigênicos das espécies Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus e A. nomius. São amplamente encontradas em matérias-primas de rações animais, em especial o milho, e têm a capacidade de levar a quadros clínicos agudos ou crônicos de aflatoxicose, caracterizados por, desde a morte por hepatite aguda até a diminuição do desempenho zootécnico por diminuição de peso ou consumo de ração. A aflatoxina B1 tem sido considerada o metabólito mais perigoso, uma vez que possui alto poder hepatotóxico, além de ser mutagênica e carcinogênica. Atualmente a ciência trabalha rumo à descoberta de substâncias que sejam indicadoras confiáveis de contaminação por componentes tóxicos em homens e em animais, os chamados biomarcadores, que medem uma mudança celular, biológica ou molecular em um meio biológico (tecidos humanos, células ou fluídos) que fornecem informação a respeito de uma doença ou exposição a uma determinada substância. Sua detecção pode auxiliar na identificação, no diagnóstico e no tratamento de indivíduos afetados que podem estar sob risco, mas ainda não exibem os sintomas. Sendo assim, com o auxílio de análises que confirmem a patogenicidade da aflatoxina B1 (determinação da atividade de enzimas hepáticas, da avaliação da função renal, de hematologia, da dosagem de minerais séricos e da avaliação de desempenho zootécnico), o objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a aplicabilidade da determinação de resíduos hepáticos de aflatoxinas e do aduto sérico AFB1-lisina na avaliação da eficiência de adsorventes em frangos de corte. Utilizou-se 240 pintos de 1 dia, machos, de linhagem Cobb 500®, distribuídos aleatoriamente em 4 dietas experimentais: Controle Negativo: Ração Basal (RB); RB + 0,5% de adsorvente ((aluminosilicato de cálcio e sódio hidratado/HSCAS); RB + 0,5% de adsorvente + 500 µg de AFB1/kg de ração e; RB + 500 µg de AFB1/kg de ração.Os resultados experimentais mostram que o efeito deletério da AFB1, na concentração utilizada, é mais pronunciado que os efeitos protetores do HSCAS sobre os parâmetros de saúde dos animais. Não houve ação efetiva do adsorvente utilizado sobre quase nenhuma variável estudada, apenas para a redução das lesões histopatológicas em fígado, na redução da concentração de gama-glutamiltransferase (GGT), fósforo e aumento da contagem de hemáceas aos 21 dias de idade. Porém, influenciou positivamente a redução de resíduos hepáticos de aflatoxina G1 aos 21 dias e as concentrações de AFB1-lisina sérica aos 21 e aos 42 dias de idade. Estes dados são importantes porque permite concluir que, embora sintomatologicamente o HSCAS não tenha exercido função efetiva, molecularmente foi capaz de mostrar de eficácia sobre os alguns biomarcadores de aflatoxinas no organismo das aves

Student mathematical textbook of James Freeman, 1774

Manuscript volume containing portions of text copied from Nicholas Saunderson’s Elements of algebra, Nicholas Hammond’s The elements of algebra, and John Ward’s The young mathematician’s guide. The volume is divided into two main parts: the first is titled Concerning the parts of Arithmetick (p. 1-98) and the second, The elements of Algebra, extracted from Hammond, Ward & Saunderson (p. 99-259).

Une nouvelle méthode pour estimer la torsion géométrique en scoliose idiopathique de l’adolescent

La scoliose idiopathique de l’adolescent (SIA) est une déformation tridimensionnelle (3D) de la colonne vertébrale. Pour la plupart des patients atteints de SIA, aucun traitement chirurgical n’est nécessaire. Lorsque la déformation devient sévère, un traitement chirurgical visant à réduire la déformation est recommandé. Pour déterminer la sévérité de la SIA, l’imagerie la plus utilisée est une radiographie postéroantérieure (PA) ou antéro-postérieure (AP) du rachis. Plusieurs indices sont disponibles à partir de cette modalité d’imagerie afin de quantifier la déformation de la SIA, dont l’angle de Cobb. La conduite thérapeutique est généralement basée sur cet indice. Cependant, les indices disponibles à cette modalité d’imagerie sont de nature bidimensionnelle (2D). Celles-ci ne décrivent donc pas entièrement la déformation dans la SIA dû à sa nature tridimensionnelle (3D). Conséquemment, les classifications basées sur les indices 2D souffrent des mêmes limitations. Dans le but décrire la SIA en 3D, la torsion géométrique a été étudiée et proposée par Poncet et al. Celle-ci mesure la tendance d’une courbe tridimensionnelle à changer de direction. Cependant, la méthode proposée est susceptible aux erreurs de reconstructions 3D et elle est calculée localement au niveau vertébral. L’objectif de cette étude est d’évaluer une nouvelle méthode d’estimation de la torsion géométrique par l’approximation de longueurs d’arcs locaux et par paramétrisation de courbes dans la SIA. Une première étude visera à étudier la sensibilité de la nouvelle méthode présentée face aux erreurs de reconstructions 3D du rachis. Par la suite, deux études cliniques vont présenter la iv torsion géométrique comme indice global et viseront à démontrer l’existence de sous-groupes non-identifiés dans les classifications actuelles et que ceux-ci ont une pertinence clinique. La première étude a évalué la robustesse de la nouvelle méthode d’estimation de la torsion géométrique chez un groupe de patient atteint de la SIA. Elle a démontré que la nouvelle technique est robuste face aux erreurs de reconstructions 3D du rachis. La deuxième étude a évalué la torsion géométrique utilisant cette nouvelle méthode dans une cohorte de patient avec des déformations de type Lenke 1. Elle a démontré qu’il existe deux sous-groupes, une avec des valeurs de torsion élevées et l’autre avec des valeurs basses. Ces deux sous-groupes possèdent des différences statistiquement significatives, notamment au niveau du rachis lombaire avec le groupe de torsion élevée ayant des valeurs d’orientation des plans de déformation maximales (PMC) en thoraco-lombaire (TLL) plus élevées. La dernière étude a évalué les résultats chirurgicaux de patients ayant une déformation Lenke 1 sous-classifiées selon les valeurs de torsion préalablement. Cette étude a pu démontrer des différences au niveau du PMC au niveau thoraco-lombaire avec des valeurs plus élevées en postopératoire chez les patients ayant une haute torsion. Ces études présentent une nouvelle méthode d’estimation de la torsion géométrique et présentent cet indice quantitativement. Elles ont démontré l’existence de sous-groupes 3D basés sur cet indice ayant une pertinence clinique dans la SIA, qui n’étaient pas identifiés auparavant. Ce projet contribue dans la tendance actuelle vers le développement d’indices 3D et de classifications 3D pour la scoliose idiopathique de l’adolescent.

Drivers of agricultural capital productivity in selected EU member states. Factor Markets Working Paper No. 30, September 2012

The aim of this Working Paper is to provide an empirical analysis of the marginal return on working capital and fixed capital in agriculture, based on data gathered by the Farm Accountancy Data Network from seven EU member states. Particular emphasis is placed on the detection of credit market imperfections. The key idea is to provide farm group-specific estimates of the shadow price of capital, and to use these to analyse the drivers of on-farm capital use in European agriculture. Based on Cobb Douglas estimates of farm-type specific production functions, we find that working capital is typically used in more than economically optimal quantities and often displays negative marginal returns across countries and farm types. This is less often the case with regard to fixed capital, but it is only in a small set of sectors where access to fixed capital appears severely constrained. These sectors include field crop and mixed farms in Denmark, dairy farms in East Germany, as well as mixed farms in Italy and the UK. The relationship between farm financial indicators and the estimated shadow prices of capital varies considerably across countries and sectors. Among the farms with a high shadow price for fixed capital in Denmark, high debt levels and little owned land tended to induce more intensive capital use, which may reflect the liberal Danish banking system. In East Germany, Italy and the UK, high debt levels made farmers more tightly capital constrained. Hence, in the latter group of countries, more traditional mechanisms of capital allocation based on debt capacity seemed to be at work. As a general conclusion, EU agriculture appears to be characterised by overcapitalisation rather than by credit constraints.

Effects of Economic Factors on Adoption of Robotics and Consequences of Automation for Productivity Growth of Dairy Farms. Factor Markets Working Paper No. 32, December 2012

In the long term, productivity and especially productivity growth are necessary conditions for the survival of a farm. This paper focuses on the technology choice of a dairy farm, i.e. the choice between a conventional and an automatic milking system. Its aim is to reveal the extent to which economic rationality explains investing in new technology. The adoption of robotics is further linked to farm productivity to show how capital-intensive technology has affected the overall productivity of milk production. The empirical analysis applies a probit model and an extended Cobb-Douglas-type production function to a Finnish farm-level dataset for the years 2000–10. The results show that very few economic factors on a dairy farm or in its economic environment can be identified to affect the switch to automatic milking. Existing machinery capital and investment allowances are among the significant factors. The results also indicate that the probability of investing in robotics responds elastically to a change in investment aids: an increase of 1% in aid would generate an increase of 2% in the probability of investing. Despite the presence of non-economic incentives, the switch to robotic milking is proven to promote productivity development on dairy farms. No productivity growth is observed on farms that keep conventional milking systems, whereas farms with robotic milking have a growth rate of 8.1% per year. The mean rate for farms that switch to robotic milking is 7.0% per year. The results show great progress in productivity growth, with the average of the sector at around 2% per year during the past two decades. In conclusion, investments in new technology as well as investment aids to boost investments are needed in low-productivity areas where investments in new technology still have great potential to increase productivity, and thus profitability and competitiveness, in the long run.

Influence of the Common Agricultural Policy and Heterogeneous Land Quality on Land Rent and Land Allocation. Factor Markets Working Paper No. 38, March 2013

Against the background of the current discussion about the EU’s common agricultural policy (CAP) after 2013, the question of the impact of government support on land prices is crucially important. Validation of the CAP’s success also hinges on a proper assessment of a choice of policy instruments. This study therefore has the objective of investigating on a theoretical basis the effects of different government support measures on land rental prices and land allocation. The different measures under consideration are the price support, area payments and decoupled single farm payments (SFPs) of the CAP. Our approach evaluates the potential impact of each measure based on a Ricardian land rent model with heterogeneous land quality and multiple land uses. We start with a simple model of one output and two inputs, where a Cobb-Douglas production technology is assumed between the two factors of land and non-land inputs. In a second step, an outside option is introduced. This outside option, as opposed to land use of the Ricardian type, is independent of land quality. The results show that area payments and SFPs become fully capitalised into land rents, whereas in a price support scheme the capitalisation depends on per-acreage productivity. Moreover, in a price support scheme and a historical model, the capitalisation is positively influenced by land quality. Both area payments and price supports influence land allocation across different uses compared with no subsidies, where the shift tends to be larger in an area payment scheme than in a price support scheme. By contrast, SFPs do not influence land allocation.

(Table 1) Air-earth current density investigated during Atlantic Expedition 1973 of METEOR

One main point of our atmospheric-electric measurements over the Atlantic Ocean 1973 was the investigation of the air-earth current density above the sea. In addition to direct measurements at the water surface with a floating net, we calculated the air-earth current density from the electric field and the air conductivity measured simultaneously on board of the ship and during particular ascents in the free atmosphere. During all five ascents the air-earth current density did not change with altitude. For pure maritime air-conditions, the mean air-earth current density was found to be 2.9 pA/m**2. The mean hourly air-earth current density over the Atlantic shows nearly the same 24-hour pattern as measured by Cobb (1977) at the South Pole at the same time. When dust-loaden air masses of African origin reached the ship as well as under continental influence the mean air-earth current density was reduced to 2.1 pA/m**2. The global 24-hour pattern was modified by this continental influences. Finally, it is shown that the values of the air conductivity measured on board R. V. "Meteor" during our earlier expeditions have been influenced by the exhaust of the ship and must therefore be corrected. With this correction, our new mean values of the air-earth current density over the Atlantic are 2.6 pA/m**2 in 1965 and 2.0 pA/m**2 in 1969. From all measurements, the global air-earth current is estimated to be about 1250 A.