Wildlife Tuberculosis in South African Conservation Areas: Implications and Challenges

Tuberculosis, caused by Mycobacterium bovis, was first diagnosed in African buffalo in South Africa’s Kruger National Park in 1990. Over the past 15 years the disease has spread northwards leaving only the most northern buffalo herds unaffected. Evidence suggests that 10 other small and large mammalian species, including large predators, are spillover hosts. Wildlife tuberculosis has also been diagnosed in several adjacent private game reserves and in the Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park, the third largest game reserve in South Africa. The tuberculosis epidemic has a number of implications, for which the full effect of some might only be seen in the long-term. Potential negative long-term effects on the population dynamics of certain social animal species and the direct threat for the survival of endangered species pose particular problems for wildlife conservationists. On the other hand, the risk of spillover infection to neighboring communal cattle raises concerns about human health at the wildlife–livestock–human interface, not only along the western boundary of Kruger National Park, but also with regards to the joint development of the Greater Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area with Zimbabwe and Mozambique. From an economic point of view, wildlife tuberculosis has resulted in national and international trade restrictions for affected species. The lack of diagnostic tools for most species and the absence of an effective vaccine make it currently impossible to contain and control this disease within an infected free-ranging ecosystem. Veterinary researchers and policy-makers have recognized the need to intensify research on this disease and the need to develop tools for control, initially targeting buffalo and lion.

Assessing Sandhill Crane Roosting Habitat along the Platte River, Nebraska

Each spring approximately 500,000 sandhill cranes and some endangered whooping cranes use the Central Platte River Valley in Nebraska as a staging habitat during their migration north to breeding and nesting grounds in Canada, Alaska, and the Siberian Arctic. Over the last century changes in the flow of the river have altered the river channels and the distribution of roost sites. USGS researchers studied linkages between water flow, sediment supply, channel morphology, and preferred sites for crane roosting. These results are useful for estimating crane populations and for providing resource managers with techniques to understand crane habitats.

Testudines - Turtles

Chelydra serpentine serpentine (Common Snapping Turtle). Nesting Behavior and Site Selection. On May 31, 2008, we observed a ca. 36 cm CL Chelydra serpentine serpentine in unexpected nesting circumstances. Observations were made from 0908 to 1027 h on clear day with ambient temp ca 24° C. The nest site near Longmont, Colorado, USA (40.1599528°N, 105.1259861°W; WGS84) was 4.3 m from a seasonal ditch running north-south to connect two lakes, one on either side of a busy road. The intriguing aspect of the nest location was that it was immediately adjacent to a heavily traveled concrete sidewalk that bordered a road with a high volume of traffic. The frequent foot traffic on the sidewalk and virtually constant vehicle traffic on the adjacent road did not deter the turtle from the particular nest location, even though virtually identical soils, gradients, and directional aspects were available equidistant from the ditch, but away from constant human activity.

Evaluation of Attractants for Live-Trapping Nine-Banded Armadillos

In the past 50 years, the range of the nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus) in the south has been rapidly expanding. As their range expands, armadillos increasingly come into conflict with suburban landowners. When foraging, armadillos often uproot ornamental plants. Their rooting also destroys gardens, lawns, and flower beds. Their burrowing can damage tree roots and building foundations. Most armadillo damage is a result of their feeding habits. Armadillos dig shallow holes, 1- 3 inches deep and 3-5 inches long, as they search for soil invertebrates. A recent survey of Georgia county extension agents by scientists at the University of Georgia found that 77.6% of all agents reported receiving complaints or requests for information on armadillos. Armadillo related inquiries made up 10.1 % all inquiries for all agents across the state, surpassing even the white-tail deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Armadillos are often assumed to destroy nests of ground-nesting birds. Armadillo diets have been studied in several states including Alabama, Louisiana, Texas, Georgia, Arkansas, and Florida. According to these studies, vertebrate matter, especially bird eggs, made up an minor portion of their diet. The armadillo’s diet often consists of more than 90% insects, grubs and earthworms. Based on these studies, it seems that claims of armadillos being significant nest predators are unfounded.

Potential Attractants for Detecting and Removing Invading Gambian Giant Pouched Rats (Cricetomys gambianus)

BACKGROUND: Native to Africa, Gambian giant pouched rats (Gambian rats; Cricetomys gambianus Waterh.) are a threatening invasive species on a Florida island, Grassy Key. Gambian giant pouched rats shifted from a domestic pet to invading species after suspected release from a pet breeder. Because of the large size of Gambian rats (weighing up to 2.8 kg), they pose a serious threat to native species (particularly nesting species) and agricultural crops, especially if Gambian rats invade mainland Florida. Also, Gambian rats pose a threat from disease, as they were implicated in a monkeypox outbreak in the mid-western United States in 2003. The United States Department of Agriculture’s Wildlife Services has initiated eradication and detection efforts in the Florida Keys, but trapping the sparse population of Gambian rats has proven difficult. RESULTS: Fifteen attractants that could be used in traps for capturing or detecting single or paired Gambian rats were tested. It was found that conspecific scents (i.e. feces and urine) from other Gambian rats were the best treatment for attracting single and paired Gambian rats. Single Gambian rats explored more attractant types than paired Gambian rats. CONCLUSIONS: Effective attractants for use with Gambian rats have been identified, and multiple attractant types should be used to capture or detect the sparse population. It is recommended that mainly urine and feces from Gambian rats be used, but peanut butter, anise, ginger and fatty acid scent could also be useful for attracting the currently small population of Gambian rats on Grassy Key.

An Investigation of Wild Bee Diversity and Abundance in Plots Managed by The Nature Conservancy in South-Central Nebraska and of Beneficial Arthropods Associated with Native Nebraska Flora

Insect pollination is an essential ecosystem service, and bees are the principal pollinators of wild and cultivated plants. Habitat management and enhancement are a proven way to encourage wild bee populations, providing them with food and nesting resources. I examined bee diversity and abundance in plots managed by The Nature Conservancy near Wood River, NE. The plots were seeded with 2 seed mixes at 2 seeding rates: high diversity mix at the recommended rate, high diversity mix double the recommended rate, Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) conservation planting (CP) 25 mix at one-half the recommended rate, and NRCS CP25 mix at the recommended rate. I measured wild bee abundance and diversity, and established a database of wild bees associated with the plots. I also compared genus richness and abundance among the plots using and aerial net and blue vane traps to collect bees. Significant differences were not observed in genus richness and diversity among the plots; however, plot size and the ability of blue vane traps to draw bees from a long distance may have influenced my results. In 2008, 15 genera and 95 individual bees were collected using an aerial net and in 2009, 32 genera and 6,103 individual bees were collected using blue vane traps. I also studied the beneficial insects associated with native Nebraska flora. Seventeen species of native, perennial flora were established in 3 separate plots located in eastern Nebraska. I transplanted four plants of each species in randomized 0.61 m x 0.61 m squares of a 3.05 m x 9.14 m plot. Arthropods were sampled using a modified leaf blower/vacuum. Insects and other arthropods were identified to family and organized into groups of predators, parasites, pollinators, herbivores, and miscellaneous. Associations between plant species and families of beneficial arthropods (predators, parasites, and pollinators) were made. Pycnanthemum flexuosum Walter attracted significantly more beneficial arthropod families than 7 other species of plants tested. Dalea purpurea Vent and Liatris punctata Hook also attracted significantly fewer beneficial arthropod families than 4 other species of plants tested. In total, 31 predator, 11 parasitic, 4 pollinator, 31 herbivore, and 10 miscellaneous families of arthropods were recorded.

Ecology, stable isotopes, and management of grassland songbirds at National Park Service properties on the Great Plains

Grassland ecosystems have been severely reduced and grassland bird populations have experienced consistent declines. National Park Service (NPS) properties on the Great Plains provide breeding habitat for grassland songbirds, though little is known about the quality of this habitat. A short-term study on songbirds at three NPS properties complemented current monitoring, providing an among park comparison addressing grassland bird productivity and fidelity relative to NPS property size. During 2008-2009, I assessed avian species richness, and estimated bird density and grassland songbird nest success. Bird species richness was greatest at small and medium sites, while number of nesting obligate species was greatest at the large site. Species-specific densities varied among sites, with few grassland obligates occurring at all three sites. Nest success estimates for grassland obligates were highest at the small site and lower at the large site. Another method to quantify habitat quality is assessment of breeding site fidelity. Current extrinsic markers used in monitoring site fidelity are inadequate for small birds; stable isotope analyses provide an alternative. I compared two techniques for assigning stable isotope tissue origin and measured grassland songbird site fidelity. My method of assigning origin provided site-specific variances of expected stable isotope values, an improvement over the most commonly used method. Fidelity tended to be higher at the large site, which may indicate a more robust breeding community of grassland birds. The small size of two of my sites precluded large sample sizes and made strong inferences difficult. To quantify how scientists cope with weak inference, I conducted a literature review. Strong inference was rarely observed, and most authors of weak-inference papers provided specific management recommendations. I suggest that adaptive management is an ideal method to resolve uncertainty from weak inference. Managers should consider my results within the context of regional and global management and the extent to which their unit might aide songbird conservation.

BEHAVIORAL RESPONSE OF CATTLE EGRETS TO POPULATION CONTROL MEASURES IN HAWAII

We monitored behavior of cattle egrets (Bubulcus ibis) during a population control program to reduce egret-aircraft strike hazards from a small heronry near the Hilo, Hawaii, airport. Results verified that attempts to move egrets from undesirable roost sites should be undertaken before nesting begins. Although possibly compounded by previous treatments, our observations also indicate that 1) egrets may abandon a new roost in response to a few dead egrets placed in clear view around the roost, and 2) shooting at egrets as they attempt to land at a traditional feeding site causes long-term avoidance of the area. Rapid repopulation after control indicates that techniques to move roosts and prevent congregations are more likely than population control to resolve problems.

THE MONK PARAKEET IN NEW YORK

Attention was focused on the Monk Parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus) in New York State in 1971 when the first successful breeding record was documented for the state although Monk Parakeets had been noticed in New York and New Jersey since 1968 (Bull, 1971). Since 1971 awareness of the bird’s potential for becoming an established species in New York has spread through several segments of the state’s populace. This awareness has been created primarily through two articles in the magazine published by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC), The Conservationist (Trimm, 1972) (Trimm, 1973); several articles in popular magazines, Parade, Yankee, Sports Afield; journals, American Birds and Kingbird; county cooperative extension bulletins and newsletters; and in numerous newspapers throughout the Northeast. The Monk Parakeet is about 12 inches long (Mourning Dove size), weighs about 90 grams, and is native to Argentina and other temperate regions of South America. The bird is pale green with a soft gray forehead and breast, some blue on the flight feathers and a flesh-colored bill. They are gregarious throughout the year. The Monk Parakeet differs from other members of the parrot family in that it builds large communal nests of sticks. Each pair of parakeets has its own private compartment with a downward-pointing tunnel entrance from the inner unlined compartment. The nest is used as sleeping quarters year round and live twigs cut by the bird are continually added to the structure (Bump, 1971). A brief review of the bird’s history in New York shows that the bird remained a mere curiosity until 1972. At that time, because the population seemed to be increasing and because information gleaned from the literature and from those with first-hand experience with the bird in its native haunts of South America indicated that the bird posed a serious potential agricultural problem, several prominent individuals, birding and conservation societies, and state and federal agencies took the position that the bird should be retrieved or removed from the wild.

The History of the German-Russian Colony in Lincoln

Standing at the corner of Tenth and O streets in the city of Lincoln, Nebraska, any week-day morning between 7:30 and 8 o'clock, you may see pass by you from ten to twenty women with little black woolen shawls on their heads. Ask any citizen who they are, and ninety-nine times in one hundred he will tell you they are "Russians" who live down on the bottoms, that they are going out into the offices and homes to wash and scrub and clean house, and that their husbands are street laborers or work for the railroad. He may then grow confidential and tell you that he "has no use for these people", that "they are only half human", and that he "would just as soon see the Chinese come here as those people". As a matter of fact the greater part of his information is incorrect, partly through race prejudice but chiefly through ignorance of their history. These people, of whom there are about 4,000 in the city (Including "beet fielders"), are Germans, not Russians: they are Teutons, not Slavs; they are Lutheran and Reformed, not Greek Catholics. To be sure they and their ancestors lived in Russia for over one hundred years and they came here directly from the realm of the Czar whoso bona fide citizens they were—but they never spoke the Russian language, never embraced the Greek religion, never intermarried with the Russians, and many of their children never saw a Russian until they left their native village for the new home in America. They despise being called "Russians" just as an Italian resents "Dago"; a Jew, "Sheeny"; and a German, "Dutchman". Ask them where they came from and most of the children and not a few of the grown people will say, "Germany". If you pursue your questioning as to what part of Germany, they will tell you "Saratov" or "Samara" - two governments in the eastern part of Russia on the lower course of the Volga river. The misconceptions concerning the desirability of these German-Russians as citizens arise from their unprogressiveness as compared with those Germans who come to us directly from the mother country. During their century's sojourn in Russia they have been out of the main current of civilization, a mere eddy in the stream of progress. They present a concrete example of arrested development, The characteristics which differentiate them from other Germans are not due to an inherent lack of capacity but to different environment. Notwithstanding this, the German- Russians have some admirable qualities. They bring us large stores of physical energy and an almost unlimited capacity for work. The majority of them are literate although the amount of their education is limited. They are thrifty and independent, almost never applying for public aid. They are law abiding, their chief offenses being those which are traceable to their communal life in Russia. They are extremely religious, all their social as well as spiritual life being bound up in the church which they support right royally. To be sure, the saloon gets their vote (the prohibition vote among them is increasing); but "was not the first miracle that Christ performed the turning of water into wine? If they would shut up the shows (theaters), they wouldn't need to shut up the saloons". The object of this paper is to give the historical setting in which the German-Russians have lived as one means to a better understanding and appreciation of them by our own citizens.

An algorithm for the strip packing problem using collision free region and exact fitting placement

The irregular shape packing problem is approached. The container has a fixed width and an open dimension to be minimized. The proposed algorithm constructively creates the solution using an ordered list of items and a placement heuristic. Simulated annealing is the adopted metaheuristic to solve the optimization problem. A two-level algorithm is used to minimize the open dimension of the container. To ensure feasible layouts, the concept of collision free region is used. A collision free region represents all possible translations for an item to be placed and may be degenerated. For a moving item, the proposed placement heuristic detects the presence of exact fits (when the item is fully constrained by its surroundings) and exact slides (when the item position is constrained in all but one direction). The relevance of these positions is analyzed and a new placement heuristic is proposed. Computational comparisons on benchmark problems show that the proposed algorithm generated highly competitive solutions. Moreover, our algorithm updated some best known results. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Assembly of Myrmelachista Roger (Formicidae: Formicinae) in twigs fallen on the leaf litter of Brazilian Atlantic Forest

The nests of Myrmelachista are found in tree trunk cavities and branches. The biology of these arboreal ants is still relatively unknown. We investigated the nesting behaviour of this genus in fallen dry twigs in the Atlantic rainforest of southeastern Brazil. Physical characteristics of the nests, colony demographics, presence of breeders and ant worker sizes were recorded. Samples were collected weekly for 12 months, along open, sunny and undisturbed trails within forest remnants. In all, 202 nests were collected and six species were recorded. Myrmelachista ruszkii had the highest population of immatures and the greatest number of nests found. Myrmelachista nodigera had the smallest workers, was the least populous and the colony was housed in the finest branches. These results expand the current knowledge about the diversity and biology of Myrmelachista in the Brazilian Atlantic forest, and describe polydomic nests and competitive behaviour of M. ruszkii.

The larval morphology and nest habits of Trypoxylon (Trypargilum) rogenhoferi Kohl 1884 (Insecta: Hymenoptera: Crabronidae)

The present study describes different preimaginal stages of Trypoxylon rogenhoferi examined by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and compares the results with observations on closely related species. Some notes on the nesting habits of this species, including their spider prey, nest parasites, and development time are provided. In short, T. rogenhoferi proved quite similar to the previous report on T. albitarse although SEM images are rarely presented in such descriptions. In fact the present study emphasized the importance of SEM images to describe fine morphological details that can be useful characters for taxonomic and phylogenetic studies. Images of some earlier development stages (first and second larval instar and egg) are presented for the first time, and compared with the few available data from other hymenopterans.

Collection of Pollen Grains by Centris (Hemisiella) tarsata Smith (Apidae: Centridini): Is C. tarsata an Oligolectic or Polylectic Species?

Lia Goncalves, Claudia Ines da Silva, and Maria Luisa Tunes Buschini (2012) Collection of pollen grains by Centris (Hemisiella) tarsata Smith (Apidae: Centridini): Is C. tarsata an oligolectic or polylectic species? Zoological Studies 51(2): 195-203. Among pollinator species, bees play a prominent role in maintaining biodiversity because they are responsible, on average, for 80% of angiosperm pollination in tropical regions. The species richness of the bee genus Centris is high in South America. In Brazil, these bees occur in many types of ecosystems. Centris tarsata is an endemic species occurring only in Brazil. No previous studies considered interactions between plants and this bee species in southern Brazil, where it is the most abundant trap-nesting bee. Accordingly, the goals of this study were to investigate plants used by this species for its larval food supply and determine if this bee is polylectic or oligolectic in this region. This work was conducted in the Parque Municipal das Araucarias, Guarapuava (PR), southern Brazil, from Mar. 2002 to Dec. 2003. Samples of pollen were collected from nests of these bees and from flowering plants in grassland and swamp areas where the nests were built. All of the samples were treated with acetolysis to obtain permanent slides. The family Solanaceae was visited most often (71%). Solanum americanum Mill. (28.6%) and Sol. variabile Mart. (42.4%) were the primary pollen sources for C. tarsata in the study area. We found that although C. tarsata visited 20 species of plants, it preferred Solanum species with poricidal anthers and pollen grains with high protein levels. This selective behavior by females of C. tarsata indicates that these bees are oligolectic in their larval provisioning in this region of southern Brazil. http://zoolstud.sinica.edu.tw/Journals/51.2/195.pdf

WATER VAPOR CONDUCTANCE OF THE LOWER CRETACEOUS DINOSAURIAN EGGS FROM SANAGASTA, LA RIOJA, ARGENTINA: PALEOBIOLOGICAL AND PALEOECOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS FOR SOUTH AMERICAN FAVEOLOOLITHID AND MEGALOOLITHID EGGS

The water vapor conductance (G(H20)) of the neosauropod eggs from the Lower Cretaceous Sanagasta nesting site in La Rioja Province, Argentina, was examined and compared with other Cretaceous Argentinean oological material. The 2900 mgH(2)O/day.Torr G(H2O) of the Sanagasta eggshells confirms an extremely moist nesting environment and supports field observations of dug-out nests in a geothermal setting. The observed thinning of the outer eggshell surface during incubation increases gas conductance and concomitantly decreases eggshell mechanical resistance during the late ontogenetic stages, thus facilitating embryonic development and hatching. The Sanagasta and Entre Rios Province faveoloolithid eggs display the highest and comparable 61120 values and share several morphological and diagenetic characters, indicating comparable nesting strategy in geothermal settings. However, the faveoloolithid Yamintie and La Pampa Province specimens cluster together with lower G(H20) values closer to the megaloolithid eggs. The Gnu) of the megaloolithid egg Megaloolithus patagonicus was reconsidered and new results are now congruent with other reported megaloolithid GH2O values. Additionally, we hypothesize that V-shaped pore canals of M. patagonicus, which upper sections reach only the top third or half eggshell thickness and, a wider section in the middle would not compromise the overall egg mechanical resistance like vertical pores connecting directly the outer to the inner eggshell surfaces. Such pore spatial arrangement and geometry would enhance, as the eggshell thins during incubation, a greater G(H2O), G(O2) and G(CO2) and facilitate embryonic development in high moisture nesting contents. Overall, data suggests that neosauropod nesting and brooding behaviors were dependent on elevated moisture nesting environments.