An Overview on the Field of Micro- and Nanotechnologies for Synthetic Peptide-Based Vaccines

18 p.

Contribution of Pannexin1 to Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis

Pannexin1 (Panx1) is a plasma membrane channel permeable to relatively large molecules, such as ATP. In the central nervous system (CNS) Panx1 is found in neurons and glia and in the immune system in macrophages and T-cells. We tested the hypothesis that Panx1-mediated ATP release contributes to expression of Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model for multiple sclerosis, using wild-type (WT) and Panx1 knockout (KO) mice. Panx1 KO mice displayed a delayed onset of clinical signs of EAE and decreased mortality compared to WT mice, but developed as severe symptoms as the surviving WT mice. Spinal cord inflammatory lesions were also reduced in Panx1 KO EAE mice during acute disease. Additionally, pharmacologic inhibition of Panx1 channels with mefloquine (MFQ) reduced severity of acute and chronic EAE when administered before or after onset of clinical signs. ATP release and YoPro uptake were significantly increased in WT mice with EAE as compared to WT non-EAE and reduced in tissues of EAE Panx1 KO mice. Interestingly, we found that the P2X7 receptor was upregulated in the chronic phase of EAE in both WT and Panx1 KO spinal cords. Such increase in receptor expression is likely to counterbalance the decrease in ATP release recorded from Panx1 KO mice and thus contribute to the development of EAE symptoms in these mice. The present study shows that a Panx1 dependent mechanism (ATP release and/or inflammasome activation) contributes to disease progression, and that inhibition of Panx1 using pharmacology or gene disruption delays and attenuates clinical signs of EAE.

Malaria Vaccine Adjuvants: Latest Update and Challenges in Preclinical and Clinical Research

There is no malaria vaccine currently available, and the most advanced candidate has recently reported a modest 30% efficacy against clinical malaria. Although many efforts have been dedicated to achieve this goal, the research was mainly directed to identify antigenic targets. Nevertheless, the latest progresses on understanding how immune system works and the data recovered from vaccination studies have conferred to the vaccine formulation its deserved relevance. Additionally to the antigen nature, the manner in which it is presented (delivery adjuvants) as well as the immunostimulatory effect of the formulation components (immunostimulants) modulates the immune response elicited. Protective immunity against malaria requires the induction of humoral, antibody-dependent cellular inhibition (ADCI) and effector and memory cell responses. This review summarizes the status of adjuvants that have been or are being employed in the malaria vaccine development, focusing on the pharmaceutical and immunological aspects, as well as on their immunization outcomings at clinical and preclinical stages.

Anatomical and developmental patterns of interleukin-2 gene expression in the mouse: analysis of IL-2 expressing cells and partial characterization of interactions involved in mediating IL-2 gene expression in vivo

Interleukin-2 (IL-2) is an important mediator in the vertebrate immune system. IL-2 is a potent growth factor that mature T lymphocytes use as a proliferation signal and the production of IL-2 is crucial for the clonal expansion of antigen-specific T cells in the primary immune response. IL-2 driven proliferation is dependent on the interaction of the lymphokine with its cognate multichain receptor. IL-2 expression is induced only upon stimulation and transcriptional activation of the IL-2 gene relies extensively on the coordinate interaction of numerous inducible and constitutive trans-acting factors. Over the past several years, thousands of papers have been published regarding molecular and cellular aspects of IL-2 gene expression and IL-2 function. The vast majority of these reports describe work that has been carried out in vitro. However, considerably less is known about control of IL-2 gene expression and IL-2 function in vivo.

To gain new insight into the regulation of IL-2 gene expression in vivo, anatomical and developmental patterns of IL-2 gene expression in the mouse were established by employing in situ hybridization and immunohistochemical staining methodologies to tissue sections generated from normal mice and mutant animals in which T -cell development was perturbed. Results from these studies revealed several interesting aspects of IL-2 gene expression, such as (1) induction of IL-2 gene expression and protein synthesis in the thymus, the primary site of T-cell development in the body, (2) cell-type specificity of IL-2 gene expression in vivo, (3) participation of IL-2 in the extrathymic expansion of mature T cells in particular tissues, independent of an acute immune response to foreign antigen, (4) involvement of IL-2 in maintaining immunologic balance in the mucosal immune system, and (5) potential function of IL-2 in early events associated with hematopoiesis.

Extensive analysis of IL-2 mRNA accumulation and protein production in the murine thymus at various stages of development established the existence of two classes of intrathymic IL-2 producing cells. One class of intrathymic IL-2 producers was found exclusively in the fetal thymus. Cells belonging to this subset were restricted to the outermost region of the thymus. IL-2 expression in the fetal thymus was highly transient; a dramatic peak ofiL-2 mRNA accumulation was identified at day 14.5 of gestation and maximal IL-2 protein production was observed 12 hours later, after which both IL-2 mRNA and protein levels rapidly decreased. Significantly, the presence of IL-2 expressing cells in the day 14-15 fetal thymus was not contingent on the generation of T-cell receptor (TcR) positive cells. The second class of IL-2 producing cells was also detectable in the fetal thymus (cells found in this class represented a minority subset of IL-2 producers in the fetal thymus) but persist in the thymus during later stages of development and after birth. Intrathymic IL-2 producers in postnatal animals were located in the subcapsular region and cortex, indicating that these cells reside in the same areas where immature T cells are consigned. The frequency of IL-2 expressing cells in the postnatal thymus was extremely low, indicating that induction of IL-2 expression and protein synthesis are indicative of a rare activation event. Unlike the fetal class of intrathymic IL-2 producers, the presence of IL-2 producing cells in the postnatal thymus was dependent on to the generation of TcR+ cells. Subsequent examination of intrathymic IL-2 production in mutant postnatal mice unable to produce either αβ or γδ T cells showed that postnatal IL-2 producers in the thymus belong to both αβ and γδ lineages. Additionally, further studies indicated that IL-2 synthesis by immature αβ -T cells depends on the expression of bonafide TcR αβ-heterodimers. Taken altogether, IL-2 production in the postnatal thymus relies on the generation of αβ or γδ-TcR^+ cells and induction of IL-2 protein synthesis can be linked to an activation event mediated via the TcR.

With regard to tissue specificity of IL-2 gene expression in vivo, analysis of whole body sections obtained from normal neonatal mouse pups by in situ hybridization demonstrated that IL-2 mRNA^+ cells were found in both lymphoid and nonlymphoid tissues with which T cells are associated, such as the thymus (as described above), dermis and gut. Tissues devoid of IL-2 mRNA^+ cells included brain, heart, lung, liver, stomach, spine, spinal cord, kidney, and bladder. Additional analysis of isolated tissues taken from older animals revealed that IL-2 expression was undetectable in bone marrow and in nonactivated spleen and lymph nodes. Thus, it appears that extrathymic IL-2 expressing cells in nonimmunologically challenged animals are relegated to particular epidermal and epithelial tissues in which characterized subsets of T cells reside and thatinduction of IL-2 gene expression associated with these tissues may be a result of T-cell activation therein.

Based on the neonatal in situ hybridization results, a detailed investigation into possible induction of IL-2 expression resulting in IL-2 protein synthesis in the skin and gut revealed that IL-2 expression is induced in the epidermis and intestine and IL-2 protein is available to drive cell proliferation of resident cells and/or participate in immune function in these tissues. Pertaining to IL-2 expression in the skin, maximal IL-2 mRNA accumulation and protein production were observed when resident Vγ_3^+ T-cell populations were expanding. At this age, both IL-2 mRNA^+ cells and IL-2 protein production were intimately associated with hair follicles. Likewise, at this age a significant number of CD3ε^+ cells were also found in association with follicles. The colocalization of IL-2 expression and CD3ε^+ cells suggests that IL-2 expression is induced when T cells are in contact with hair follicles. In contrast, neither IL-2 mRNA nor IL-2 protein were readily detected once T-cell density in the skin reached steady-state proportions. At this point, T cells were no longer found associated with hair follicles but were evenly distributed throughout the epidermis. In addition, IL-2 expression in the skin was contingent upon the presence of mature T cells therein and induction of IL-2 protein synthesis in the skin did not depend on the expression of a specific TcR on resident T cells. These newly disclosed properties of IL-2 expression in the skin indicate that IL-2 may play an additional role in controlling mature T-cell proliferation by participating in the extrathymic expansion of T cells, particularly those associated with the epidermis.

Finally, regarding IL-2 expression and protein synthesis in the gut, IL-2 producing cells were found associated with the lamina propria of neonatal animals and gut-associated IL-2 production persisted throughout life. In older animals, the frequency of IL-2 producing cells in the small intestine was not identical to that in the large intestine and this difference may reflect regional specialization of the mucosal immune system in response to enteric antigen. Similar to other instances of IL-2 gene expression in vivo, a failure to generate mature T cells also led to an abrogation of IL-2 protein production in the gut. The presence of IL-2 producing cells in the neonatal gut suggested that these cells may be generated during fetal development. Examination of the fetal gut to determine the distribution of IL-2 producing cells therein indicated that there was a tenfold increase in the number of gut-associated IL-2 producers at day 20 of gestation compared to that observed four days earlier and there was little difference between the frequency of IL-2 producing cells in prenatal versus neonatal gut. The origin of these fetally-derived IL-2 producing cells is unclear. Prior to the immigration of IL-2 inducible cells to the fetal gut and/or induction of IL-2 expression therein, IL-2 protein was observed in the fetal liver and fetal omentum, as well as the fetal thymus. Considering that induction of IL-2 protein synthesis may be an indication of future functional capability, detection of IL-2 producing cells in the fetal liver and fetal omentum raises the possibility that IL-2 producing cells in the fetal gut may be extrathymic in origin and IL-2 producing cells in these fetal tissues may not belong solely to the T lineage. Overall, these results provide increased understanding of the nature of IL-2 producing cells in the gut and how the absence of IL-2 production therein and in fetal hematopoietic tissues can result in the acute pathology observed in IL-2 deficient animals.

Earth-abundant materials for solar hydrogen generation

A critical challenge for the 21st century is shifting from the predominant use of fossil fuels to renewables for energy. Among many options, sunlight is the only single renewable resource with sufficient abundance to replace most or all of our current fossil energy use. However, existing photovoltaic and solar thermal technologies cannot be scaled infinitely due to the temporal and geographic intermittency of sunlight. Therefore efficient and inexpensive methods for storage of solar energy in a dense medium are needed in order to greatly increase utilization of the sun as a primary resource. For this purpose we have proposed an artificial photosynthetic system consisting of semiconductors, electrocatalysts, and polymer membranes to carry out photoelectrochemical water splitting as a method for solar fuel generation.

This dissertation describes efforts over the last five years to develop critical semiconductor and catalyst components for efficient and scalable photoelectrochemical hydrogen evolution, one of the half reactions for water splitting. We identified and developed Ni–Mo alloy and Ni₂P nanoparticles as promising earth-abundant electrocatalysts for hydrogen evolution. We thoroughly characterized Ni–Mo alloys alongside Ni and Pt catalysts deposited onto planar and structured Si light absorbers for solar hydrogen generation. We sought to address several key challenges that emerged in the use of non-noble catalysts for solar fuels generation, resulting in the synthesis and characterization of Ni–Mo nanopowder for use in a new photocathode device architecture. To address the mismatch in stability between non-noble metal alloys and Si absorbers, we also synthesized and characterized p-type WSe₂ as a candidate light absorber alternative to Si that is stable under acidic and alkaline conditions.

Statistical and econometric analysis of the treatment of HIV/AIDS

The epidemic of HIV/AIDS in the United States is constantly changing and evolving, starting from patient zero to now an estimated 650,000 to 900,000 Americans infected. The nature and course of HIV changed dramatically with the introduction of antiretrovirals. This discourse examines many different facets of HIV from the beginning where there wasn't any treatment for HIV until the present era of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). By utilizing statistical analysis of clinical data, this paper examines where we were, where we are and projections as to where treatment of HIV/AIDS is headed.

Chapter Two describes the datasets that were used for the analyses. The primary database utilized was collected by myself from an outpatient HIV clinic. The data included dates from 1984 until the present. The second database was from the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS) public dataset. The data from the MACS cover the time between 1984 and October 1992. Comparisons are made between both datasets.

Chapter Three discusses where we were. Before the first anti-HIV drugs (called antiretrovirals) were approved, there was no treatment to slow the progression of HIV. The first generation of antiretrovirals, reverse transcriptase inhibitors such as AZT (zidovudine), DDI (didanosine), DDC (zalcitabine), and D4T (stavudine) provided the first treatment for HIV. The first clinical trials showed that these antiretrovirals had a significant impact on increasing patient survival. The trials also showed that patients on these drugs had increased CD4+ T cell counts. Chapter Three examines the distributions of CD4 T cell counts. The results show that the estimated distributions of CD4 T cell counts are distinctly non-Gaussian. Thus distributional assumptions regarding CD4 T cell counts must be taken, into account when performing analyses with this marker. The results also show the estimated CD4 T cell distributions for each disease stage: asymptomatic, symptomatic and AIDS are non-Gaussian. Interestingly, the distribution of CD4 T cell counts for the asymptomatic period is significantly below that of the CD4 T cell distribution for the uninfected population suggesting that even in patients with no outward symptoms of HIV infection, there exists high levels of immunosuppression.

Chapter Four discusses where we are at present. HIV quickly grew resistant to reverse transcriptase inhibitors which were given sequentially as mono or dual therapy. As resistance grew, the positive effects of the reverse transcriptase inhibitors on CD4 T cell counts and survival dissipated. As the old era faded a new era characterized by a new class of drugs and new technology changed the way that we treat HIV-infected patients. Viral load assays were able to quantify the levels of HIV RNA in the blood. By quantifying the viral load, one now had a faster, more direct way to test antiretroviral regimen efficacy. Protease inhibitors, which attacked a different region of HIV than reverse transcriptase inhibitors, when used in combination with other antiretroviral agents were found to dramatically and significantly reduce the HIV RNA levels in the blood. Patients also experienced significant increases in CD4 T cell counts. For the first time in the epidemic, there was hope. It was hypothesized that with HAART, viral levels could be kept so low that the immune system as measured by CD4 T cell counts would be able to recover. If these viral levels could be kept low enough, it would be possible for the immune system to eradicate the virus. The hypothesis of immune reconstitution, that is bringing CD4 T cell counts up to levels seen in uninfected patients, is tested in Chapter Four. It was found that for these patients, there was not enough of a CD4 T cell increase to be consistent with the hypothesis of immune reconstitution.

In Chapter Five, the effectiveness of long-term HAART is analyzed. Survival analysis was conducted on 213 patients on long-term HAART. The primary endpoint was presence of an AIDS defining illness. A high level of clinical failure, or progression to an endpoint, was found.

Chapter Six yields insights into where we are going. New technology such as viral genotypic testing, that looks at the genetic structure of HIV and determines where mutations have occurred, has shown that HIV is capable of producing resistance mutations that confer multiple drug resistance. This section looks at resistance issues and speculates, ceterus parabis, where the state of HIV is going. This section first addresses viral genotype and the correlates of viral load and disease progression. A second analysis looks at patients who have failed their primary attempts at HAART and subsequent salvage therapy. It was found that salvage regimens, efforts to control viral replication through the administration of different combinations of antiretrovirals, were not effective in 90 percent of the population in controlling viral replication. Thus, primary attempts at therapy offer the best change of viral suppression and delay of disease progression. Documentation of transmission of drug-resistant virus suggests that the public health crisis of HIV is far from over. Drug resistant HIV can sustain the epidemic and hamper our efforts to treat HIV infection. The data presented suggest that the decrease in the morbidity and mortality due to HIV/AIDS is transient. Deaths due to HIV will increase and public health officials must prepare for this eventuality unless new treatments become available. These results also underscore the importance of the vaccine effort.

The final chapter looks at the economic issues related to HIV. The direct and indirect costs of treating HIV/AIDS are very high. For the first time in the epidemic, there exists treatment that can actually slow disease progression. The direct costs for HAART are estimated. It is estimated that the direct lifetime costs for treating each HIV infected patient with HAART is between $353,000 to $598,000 depending on how long HAART prolongs life. If one looks at the incremental cost per year of life saved it is only $101,000. This is comparable with the incremental costs per year of life saved from coronary artery bypass surgery.

Policy makers need to be aware that although HAART can delay disease progression, it is not a cure and HIV is not over. The results presented here suggest that the decreases in the morbidity and mortality due to HIV are transient. Policymakers need to be prepared for the eventual increase in AIDS incidence and mortality. Costs associated with HIV/AIDS are also projected to increase. The cost savings seen recently have been from the dramatic decreases in the incidence of AIDS defining opportunistic infections. As patients who have been on HAART the longest start to progress to AIDS, policymakers and insurance companies will find that the cost of treating HIV/AIDS will increase.

The logic of receptor-ligand interactions in the Notch signaling pathway

The Notch signaling pathway enables neighboring cells to coordinate developmental fates in diverse processes such as angiogenesis, neuronal differentiation, and immune system development. Although key components and interactions in the Notch pathway are known, it remains unclear how they work together to determine a cell's signaling state, defined as its quantitative ability to send and receive signals using particular Notch receptors and ligands. Recent work suggests that several aspects of the system can lead to complex signaling behaviors: First, receptors and ligands interact in two distinct ways, inhibiting each other in the same cell (in cis) while productively interacting between cells (in trans) to signal. The ability of a cell to send or receive signals depends strongly on both types of interactions. Second, mammals have multiple types of receptors and ligands, which interact with different strengths, and are frequently co-expressed in natural systems. Third, the three mammalian Fringe proteins can modify receptor-ligand interaction strengths in distinct and ligand-specific ways. Consequently, cells can exhibit non-intuitive signaling states even with relatively few components.

In order to understand what signaling states occur in natural processes, and what types of signaling behaviors they enable, this thesis puts forward a quantitative and predictive model of how the Notch signaling state is determined by the expression levels of receptors, ligands, and Fringe proteins. To specify the parameters of the model, we constructed a set of cell lines that allow control of ligand and Fringe expression level, and readout of the resulting Notch activity. We subjected these cell lines to an assay to quantitatively assess the levels of Notch ligands and receptors on the surface of individual cells. We further analyzed the dependence of these interactions on the level and type of Fringe expression. We developed a mathematical modeling framework that uses these data to predict the signaling states of individual cells from component expression levels. These methods allow us to reconstitute and analyze a diverse set of Notch signaling configurations from the bottom up, and provide a comprehensive view of the signaling repertoire of this major signaling pathway.

Aderência, invasão e persistência intracelular de estreptococos do grupo B em células epiteliais respiratórias A549

Estreptococos do grupo B (EGB) comumente colonizam adultos saudáveis, sem sintomas, mas sob certas circunstâncias possui a capacidade de invadir tecidos do hospedeiro, evadir da detecção imunológica e causar doenças invasivas graves. Por conseguinte, os EGB continuam sendo uma das principais causas de mortalidade neonatal, pneumonia, sepse e meningite. Contudo, a patogênese desta infecção ainda está pouco elucidada. O sorotipo V é freqüentemente associado à doença invasiva em mulheres adultas não gestantes e o segundo mais prevalente em mulheres grávidas. O principal objetivo deste trabalho foi estudar a aderência, invasão e persistência intracelular de amostras pertencentes ao sorotipo V (88641-vagina/portador e 90186-sangue/paciente) usando as células epiteliais respiratórias A549. As amostras de EGB demonstraram capacidade de aderir e invadir as células epiteliais A549, mas somente a amostra 90186-sangue apresentou maior invasão quando comparada com a de vagina (P <0.001). Ambas as amostras demonstraram persistência intracelular sem replicação no interior das células A549. Apenas o isolado 90186-sangue sobreviveu dentro das células epiteliais até 24h de incubação (P <0,05). A fusão dos lisossomas das células epiteliais com vacúolos contendo bactérias foi observada em células A549 tratadas com Lyso Tracker Grenn DND-26 para todas as amostras testadas. Nossos dados indicam pela primeira vez que as amostras viáveis do sorotipo V permanecem dentro de vacúolos ácidos epiteliais. Curiosamente, a amostra 90186- sangue induziu vacuolização celular e a amostra 88641-vagina promoveu a morte celular após 7h de incubação. Finalmente, nossos resultados aumentam o nosso conhecimento sobre eventos celulares da fagocitose e da patogênese das doenças invasivas promovidas pelos EGB.

Efeitos cardiovasculares da transferência adotiva de linfócitos T reguladores em camundongos submetidos à infusão crônica de angiotensina II e de aldosterona

A angiotensina (Ang) II e aldosterona induzem hipertensão arterial por mecanismos em parte mediados pela imunidade adaptativa, envolvendo linfócitos T auxiliares respondedores (Tresp). Os linfócitos T reguladores (Treg) são capazes de suprimir os efeitos próinflamatórios do sistema imune. O presente estudo avaliou se a transferência adotiva de Treg é capaz de prevenir a hipertensão e a lesão vascular induzidas pela Ang II ou pela aldosterona, em dois protocolos distintos. No protocolo com Ang II, camundongos machos C57BL/6 sofreram a injeção endovenosa de Treg ou Tresp, sendo depois infundidos com Ang II (1μg/kg/min), ou salina (grupo controle) por 14 dias. No protocolo com aldosterona, um outro conjunto de animais sofreu injeções de Treg ou Tresp, sendo depois infundido com aldosterona (600μg/kg/d) ou salina (grupo controle), pelo mesmo intervalo de tempo. O grupo tratado com aldosterona recebeu salina 1% na água. Tanto o grupo Ang II como aldosterona apresentaram elevação da pressão arterial sistólica (43% e 31% respectivamente), da atividade da NADPH oxidase na aorta (1,5 e 1,9 vezes, respectivamente) e no coração (1,8 e 2,4 vezes, respectivamente) e uma redução da resposta vasodilatadora à acetilcolina (de 70% e 56%, respectivamente), quando comparados com os respectivos controles (P<0,05). Adicionalmente, a administração de Ang II proporcionou um aumento rigidez vascular (P<0,001), na expressão de VCAM-1 nas artérias mesentéricas (P<0,05), na infiltração aórtica de macrófagos e linfócitos T (P<0,001) e nos níveis plasmáticos das citocinas inflamatórias interferon (INF)-γ, interleucina (IL)-6, Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α e IL-10 (P<0,05). Ang II causou uma queda de 43% no número de células Foxp3+ no córtex renal, enquanto que a transferência adotiva de Treg aumentou as células Foxp3+ em duas vezes em comparação com o controle. A administração de Treg preveniu o remodelamento vascular induzido pela aldosterona, observado na relação média/lúmen e na área transversal da média das artérias mesentéricas (P<0,05). Todos os parâmetros acima foram prevenidos com a administração de Treg, mas não de Tresp. Estes resultados demonstram que Treg são capazes de impedir a lesão vascular e a hipertensão mediadas por Ang II ou por aldosterona, em parte através de ações antiinflamatórias. Em conclusão, uma abordagem imuno-modulatória pode prevenir o aumento da pressão arterial, o estresse oxidativo vascular, a inflamação e a disfunção endotelial induzidos por Ang II ou aldosterona.

Efeito da Suplementação com L-arginina em subpopulações linfocitárias de ratos submetidos a esplenectomia total isolada ou combinada com autoimplante esplênico

A L-arginina é reconhecida como um nutriente de fundamental importância na resposta imune, apesar de seus efeitos serem, por vezes, considerados inconstantes. O autoimplante esplênico tem sido proposto como alternativa à esplenectomia total isolada, mas existem preocupações quanto à eficácia do restabelecimento da resposta imune, haja vista que o paciente pode permanecer com risco aumentado de desenvolvimento de infecção fulminante pós esplenectomia, mesmo após a regeneração morfológica do órgão. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar a participação da suplementação dietética com L-arginina em subpopulações linfocitárias no sangue, no baço e nos autoimplantes esplênicos de ratos submetidos a esplenectomia isolada ou combinada com autoimplante esplênico. Foram utilizados 42 ratos Sprague-Dawley machos, randomicamente distribuídos em seis grupos: 1 Controle operação simulada; 2 esplenectomia total; 3 esplenectomia total combinada com autoimplante esplênico; 4 Controle operação simulada, com suplementação de L-arginina; 5 esplenectomia total, com suplementação de L-arginina; e 6 esplenectomia total combinada com autoimplante esplênico, com suplementação de L-arginina. Os animais dos grupos 4, 5 e 6 receberam suplementação de L-arginina, uma vez ao dia, durante 15 dias anteriores a coleta sangüínea realizada imediatamente antes dos procedimentos operatórios (semanas 0 e 12). A dose utilizada foi de 1,0 g/kg/dia, administrada por via intragástrica em bolus. As avaliações foram realizadas por meio de hemograma e citometria de fluxo. A análise estatística utilizou testes paramétricos e nãoparamétricos, sendo p<0,05 considerado para a rejeição da hipótese nula. A suplementação com L-arginina acarretou elevação da contagem relativa e absoluta de neutrófilos periféricos, 12 semanas após a realização de esplenectomia total combinada com autoimplante esplênico. A esplenectomia total ocasionou diminuição da contagem relativa de linfócitos T totais, T CD4+ e T CD8β no sangue, mas a suplementação dietética com L-arginina evitou a diminuição do percentual de células T totais e T CD8β no sangue dos animais submetidos a autoimplante esplênico. Tanto a realização de autoimplante esplênico como a suplementação de L-arginina previnem a diminuição da subpopulação de linfócitos T CD4+ no sangue periférico, fato que usualmente ocorre após realização de esplenectomia total. Houve maior proliferação de células brancas / g de tecido nos autoimplante esplênico dos animais suplementados, porém a suplementação não influenciou a contagem de linfócitos T, T CD4+ e B de zona marginal de baço. A suplementação do aminoácido L-arginina após a realização de esplenectomia total combinada com autoimplante esplênico em ratos foi capaz de reverter alterações observadas em algumas das subpopulações linfocitárias, ocasionadas pela esplenectomia.

Citocinas proinflamatorias: participación en la modulación de la actividad del melanoma experimental B16

252 p. : il.

Poluentes marinhos como fatores de estresse em esponjas e mexilhões

A biota marinha está exposta a uma elevada quantidade de substâncias tóxicas que podem causar graves problemas ao ambiente. As esponjas (Porifera) e os mexilhões (Mollusca) por serem sésseis e filtradores são utilizados como bioindicadores de poluição. A experimentação com aquários permite a realização de ensaios controlados, acompanhamento da resposta a diversos poluentes, concentrações e tempo de exposição. Os objetivos deste estudo foram: I). avaliar a imunocompetência através da expressão de proteínas do sistema imune Fator Inflamatório de Enxerto AIF -1 e pP38 por teste de ELISA (do inglês, Enzyme Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay) em esponjas expostas a poluentes, II) acompanhar a expressão das proteínas AIF-1 e pP38 nas cinco espécies de esponjas marinhas: Aplysina fulva (Pallas, 1766), Chondrilla aff. nucula Schimidt, 1862, Dysidea robusta Vilanova e Muricy 2001, Polymastia janeirensis (Boury-Esnault, 1973) e Hymeniacidon heliophila (Parker, 1910) após exposição a lipopolisacarídeo (LPS) de E. Coli III) avaliar a expressão das proteínas AIF-1 e pP38 nas espécies C. aff. nucula e P. janeirensis após exposição a dodecil sulfato de sódio (SDS) IV) avaliar a mortalidade de mexilhões quando expostos ao dispersante Triton X-100 e esgoto doméstico in natura. Os resultados indicam que as esponjas A. fulva, C. aff. nucula, D. robusta e P. janeirensis expostas a 20 μg/mL de LPS por 30 minutos, uma, três, 24 e 48 horas apresentaram aumento de expressão da proteína AIF-1 em relação ao controle, com diferentes tempos de resposta para cada espécie. A esponja H. heliophila exposta a 30 μg/mL de LPS apresentou diferença significativa na expressão de AIF-1 em relação ao controle na exposição por 30 min, uma, quatro, 24 e 48 horas. Contudo, não houve diferença significativa na expressão de outra proteína, a quinase pP38, nesses ensaios. As esponjas C. aff. nucula e P. janeirensis foram expostas a 0,25 mg/L de dodecil sulfato de sódio (SDS) por 24 e 48 horas. C. aff. nucula apresentou aumento da expressão de AIF -1 quando comparada ao controle em 24 e 48 horas, mas para P. janeirensis não houve diferença significativa. Os mexilhões Perna perna foram expostos a poluentes de duas maneiras a detergente Triton X-100 0,10 g/L por três, seis, 12 e 18 horas que induziu diferença significativa na mortalidade em seis, 12 e 18 horas em comparação com o controle e a a esgoto doméstico in natura diluído na proporção de 1:50 não houve mortalidade no tratamento ou no controle. A variação da expressão da proteína AIF-1 observada nas cinco espécies de esponjas marinhas confirma a utilização dessa proteína como eficiente biomarcador de estresse. Os mexilhões foram bons bioindicadores da poluição por detergente.

Autophagic Marker MAP1LC3B Expression Levels Are Associated with Carotid Atherosclerosis Symptomatology

Objectives: The mechanism by which atheroma plaque becomes unstable is not completely understood to date but analysis of differentially expressed genes in stable versus unstable plaques may provide clues. This will be crucial toward disclosing the mechanistic basis of plaque instability, and may help to identify prognostic biomarkers for ischaemic events. The objective of our study was to identify differences in expression levels of 59 selected genes between symptomatic patients (unstable plaques) and asymptomatic patients (stable plaques). Methods: 80 carotid plaques obtained by carotid endarterectomy and classified as symptomatic (>70% stenosis) or asymptomatic (>80% stenosis) were used in this study. The expression levels of 59 genes were quantified by qPCR on RNA extracted from the carotid plaques obtained by endarterectomy and analyzed by means of various bioinformatic tools. Results: Several genes associated with autophagy pathways displayed differential expression levels between asymptomatic and symptomatic (i.e. MAP1LC3B, RAB24, EVA1A). In particular, mRNA levels of MAP1LC3B, an autophagic marker, showed a 5-fold decrease in symptomatic samples, which was confirmed in protein blots. Immune system-related factors and endoplasmic reticulum-associated markers (i.e. ERP27, ITPR1, ERO1LB, TIMP1, IL12B) emerged as differently expressed genes between asymptomatic and symptomatic patients. Conclusions: Carotid atherosclerotic plaques in which MAP1LC3B is underexpressed would not be able to benefit from MAP1LC3B-associated autophagy. This may lead to accumulation of dead cells at lesion site with subsequent plaque destabilization leading to cerebrovascular events. Identified biomarkers and network interactions may represent novel targets for development of treatments against plaque destabilization and thus for the prevention of cerebrovascular events.

Impacto da exposição fetal ao HIV-1 na função das células T e das células dendríticas de neonatos não infectados

A síndrome da imunodeficiência adquirida (AIDS), causada pelo vírus da imunodeficiência humana (HIV), é uma das epidemias mais impactantes do milênio e, desde o início, o número de mulheres jovens infectadas vem aumentando vertiginosamente, principalmente nos países em desenvolvimento onde muitas destas engravidam precocemente. Apesar da grande maioria dos casos de AIDS pediátrico no mundo resultar da transmissão vertical, aproximadamente dois terços dos neonatos expostos ao HIV durante a vida fetal não são contaminados. Neste sentido, seguindo as recomendações do consenso brasileiro (Ministério da Saúde), toda criança cuja transmissão vertical tenha sido descartada laboratorialmente não necessita de acompanhamento ambulatorial particularizado. Entretanto, resultados anteriores obtidos pelo nosso grupo demonstraram que, gestantes infectadas pelo HIV-1 que não controlam a carga viral plasmática (CVP), apresentam níveis elevados de citocinas inflamatórias e, no presente estudo, resultados revelam que neonatos não-infectados nascidos dessas gestantes apresentam anormalidades imunofuncionais no compartimento das células T do cordão umbilical quando expostos in vitro a ativadores policlonais, mas não aos antígenos do HIV-1. Ademais, quando comparada a neonatos não expostos, a ativação in vitro das células T de neonatos expostos ao HIV-1 com anti-CD3/anti-CD28 induziu a produção de níveis elevados de IL-17 e reduzidos de IL-10. Interessantemente, essa tendência das células T em secretar IL-17 parece estar relacionada à liberação de níveis elevados de IL-23 pelas células dendríticas derivadas de monócitos do sangue do cordão umbilical estimuladas com lipopolissacarídeo bacteriano. Uma ausência de sensibilização uterina aos antígenos do HIV-1 sugere que essas alterações possam traduzir um efeito adverso da produção elevada de citocinas inflamatórias maternas sobre o sistema imune do neonato, o que pode desequilibrar os eventos envolvidos na maturação e homeostasia imune fetal e neonatal, favorecendo o predomínio de fenótipos Th anômalos, tal como Th17. Essa hiper-responsividade das células Th17 pode vir a comprometer não apenas a capacidade da criança em responder de forma adequada a diferentes estímulos antigênicos ao longo de sua vida, como também pode torná-la mais suscetível a desordens imunomediadas

Avaliação da resposta imune a Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli e Candida albicans em pacientes com neuromielite óptica e sua correlação com o grau de incapacidade neurológica

A Neuromielite Óptica (NMO), anteriormente considerada como um subtipo de Esclerose Múltipla, é uma doença autoimune, inflamatória do sistema nervoso central, na qual o sistema imune ataca a mielina dos neurônios localizados nos nervos ópticos e medula espinhal, produzindo, então, mielite e neurite óptica simultânea ou sequenciais. A patogênese da neuromielite óptica é influenciada pela combinação de fatores genéticos e ambientais, incluindo agentes infecciosos. Diferentes doenças infecciosas podem tanto desencadear como exacerbar a autoimunidade. Portanto, o objetivo do presente estudo foi de analisar a responsividade imune in vitro a Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus e Candida albicans em pacientes com NMO recorrente-remitente, e a correlacionar ao nível de incapacidade neurológica. Nesse contexto, a extensão da linfoproliferação e perfil de citocinas em resposta a S. aureus e C. albicans, em culturas de células mononucleares do sangue periférico (CMSP) foram similares entre pacientes com NMO e indivíduos saudáveis. Entretanto, maior proliferação de células T associada à elevada liberação de IL-1β, IL-6 e IL-17 foi observada em culturas de células derivadas de pacientes com NMO quando estimuladas com E. coli. Ademais, nessas culturas, a produção de IL-10 foi significativamente menor quando comparada ao grupo controle. Ensaios conduzidos em culturas de CMSP depletadas de diferentes subtipos de linfócitos demonstraram que, enquanto células T CD4+ e T CD8+ produzem IL-6 em resposta a E. coli, a produção de IL-17 foi praticamente restrita às células T CD4+. Os níveis de IL-6 e IL-17 in vitro induzidos por E. coli foram correlacionados positivamente às incapacidades neurológicas. Essa maior tendência a produzir citocinas relacionadas ao perfil Th17 foi diretamente associada aos níveis de IL-23 produzidos por monócitos ativados com LPS. De modo interessante, níveis elevados de LPS foram quantificados no plasma de pacientes com NMO e estes foram correlacionados aos níveis plasmáticos de IL-6. Em conclusão, nossos resultados sugerem que uma maior responsividade a E. coli poderia estar envolvida na patogênese da NMO. Esse tipo de investigação é muito importante pois inibidores da ligação ou sinalização do TLR poderiam ser considerados terapias com grande potencial como adjuvantes no tratamento de pacientes com NMO.