Caring at a distance: Gift Theory, aid chains and social movements

This paper takes as its starting point recent work on caring for distant others which is one expression of renewed interest in moral geographies. It examines relationships in aid chains connecting donors/carers in the First World or North and recipients/cared for in the Third World or South. Assuming predominance of relationships between strangers and of universalism as a basis for moral motivation I draw upon Gift Theory in order to characterize two basic forms of gift relationship. The first is purely altruistic, the other fully reciprocal and obligatory within the framework of institutions, values and social forces within specific relationships of politics and power. This conception problematizes donor-recipient relationships in the context of two modernist models of aid chains-the Resource Transfer and the Beyond Aid Paradigms. In the first, donor domination means low levels of reciprocity despite rhetoric about partnership and participation. The second identifies potential for greater reciprocity on the basis of combination between social movements and non-governmental organizations at both national and trans-national levels, although at the risk of marginalizing competencies of states. Finally, I evaluate post-structural critiques which also problematize aid chain relationships. They do so both in terms of bases-such as universals and difference-upon which it might be constructed and the means-such as forms of positionality and mutuality-by which it might be achieved.

The formation mechanism of the Bonin high in August

The Bonin high is a subtropical anticyclone that is predominant near Japan in the summer. This anticyclone is associated with an equivalent-barotropic structure, often extending throughout the entire troposphere. Although the equivalent-barotropic structure of the Bonin high has been known for years among synopticians because of its importance to the summer climate in east Asia, there are few dynamical explanations for such a structure. The present paper attempts to provide a formation mechanism for the deep ridge near Japan. We propose a new hypothesis that this equivalent-barotropic ridge near Japan is formed as a result of the propagation of stationary Rossby waves along the Asian jet in the upper troposphere (‘the Silk Road pattern’). First, the monthly mean climatology is examined in order to demonstrate this hypothesis. It is shown that the enhanced Asian jet in August is favourable for the propagation of stationary Rossby waves and that the regions of descent over the eastern Mediterranean Sea and the Aral Sea act as two major wave sources. Second, a primitive-equation model is used to simulate the climatology of August. The model successfully simulates the Bonin high with an equivalent-barotropic structure. The upper-tropospheric ridge is found to be enhanced by a height anomaly of more than 80 m at 200 hPa, when a wave packet arrives. Sensitivity experiments are conducted to show that the removal of the diabatic cooling over the Asian jet suppresses the Silk Road pattern and formation of an equivalent-barotropic ridge near Japan, while the removal of the diabatic heating in the western Pacific does not. Copyright © 2003 Royal Meteorological Society

Experimental verification of suction sampler capture efficiency in grasslands of differing vegetation height and structure

1. Suction sampling is a popular method for the collection of quantitative data on grassland invertebrate populations, although there have been no detailed studies into the effectiveness of the method. 2. We investigate the effect of effort (duration and number of suction samples) and sward height on the efficiency of suction sampling of grassland beetle, true bug, planthopper and spider Populations. We also compare Suction sampling with an absolute sampling method based on the destructive removal of turfs. 3. Sampling for durations of 16 seconds was sufficient to collect 90% of all individuals and species of grassland beetles, with less time required for the true bugs, spiders and planthoppers. The number of samples required to collect 90% of the species was more variable, although in general 55 sub-samples was sufficient for all groups, except the true bugs. Increasing sward height had a negative effect on the capture efficiency of suction sampling. 4. The assemblage structure of beetles, planthoppers and spiders was independent of the sampling method (suction or absolute) used. 5. Synthesis and applications. In contrast to other sampling methods used in grassland habitats (e.g. sweep netting or pitfall trapping), suction sampling is an effective quantitative tool for the measurement of invertebrate diversity and assemblage structure providing sward height is included as a covariate. The effective sampling of beetles, true bugs, planthoppers and spiders altogether requires a minimum sampling effort of 110 sub-samples of duration of 16 seconds. Such sampling intensities can be adjusted depending on the taxa sampled, and we provide information to minimize sampling problems associated with this versatile technique. Suction sampling should remain an important component in the toolbox of experimental techniques used during both experimental and management sampling regimes within agroecosystems, grasslands or other low-lying vegetation types.

A maternal influence on the conditioning to plant cues of Aphidius colemani Viereck, parasitizing the aphid Myzus persicae Sulzer

The offspring of parasitoids, Aphidius colemani Viereck, reared on Brussels sprouts and emerging from Myzus persicae Sulzer on a fully defined artificial diet, show no preferences in a four-way olfactometer, either for the odour of the diet, the odour of Brussels sprouts, or the odour of two other crucifers (cabbage and Chinese cabbage). A similar lack of odour preferences is shown when the host aphids are exposed for parasitization (for 48 h) on cabbage, Chinese cabbage or wheat. However, if parasitization occurs on Brussels sprouts, a weak but statistically highly significant response to Brussels sprout odour is observed. Although as many as 30-35% of the parasitoids show no response to any odour, another 35% respond positively to the odour of Brussels sprout compared with responses to the odours of cabbage, Chinese cabbage or wheat of only approximately 10%. An analagous result is obtained when the parent parasitoids are reared on cabbage. In this case, significant positive responses of their offspring to cabbage odour occur only if the 48-h parasitization has occurred also on cabbage. However, with parasitoids from Brussels sprouts parasitizing the aphids for 48 h also on Brussels sprouts, the offspring subsequently emerging from pupae excised from the mummies show no preference for Brussels sprout odour. Thus, although the Brussels sprout cue had been experienced early in the development of the parasitoids, they only become conditioned to it when emerging from the mummy. Both male and female parasitoids respond very similarly in all experiments. It is proposed that the chemical cue (probably glucosinolates in these experiments) is most likely in the silk surrounding the parasitoid pupa, and that the mother may leave the chemical in or around the egg at oviposition, inducing chemical defences in her offspring to the secondary plant compounds that the offspring are likely to encounter.

Multitrophic effects of nutrient addition in upland grassland

Although the effects of nutrient enhancement on aquatic systems are well documented, the consequences of nutritional supplements on soil food webs are poorly understood, and results of past research examining bottom-up effects are often conflicting. In addition, many studies have failed to separate the effects of nutrient enrichment and the physical effects of adding organic matter. In this field study, we hypothesised that the addition of nitrogen to soil would result in a trophic cascade, through detritivores (Collembola) to predators (spiders), increasing invertebrate numbers and diversity. Nitrogen and lime were added to plots in an upland grassland in a randomised block design. Populations of Collembola and spiders were sampled by means of pitfall traps and identified to species. Seventeen species of Collembola were identified from the nitrogen plus lime (N + L) and control plots. Species assemblage, diversity, richness, evenness and total number were not affected by nutrient additions. However, there was an increase in the number of Isotomidae juveniles and Parisotoma anglicana trapped in the N + L plots. Of the 44 spider species identified, over 80% were Linyphiidae. An effect on species assemblage from the addition of N + L to the plots was observed on two of the four sampling dates (July 2002 and June 2003). The linyphiid, Oedothorax retusus, was the only species significantly affected by the treatments and was more likely to be trapped in the control plots. The increased number of juvenile Collembola, and change in community composition of spiders, were consequences of the bottom-up effect caused by nutrient inputs. However, despite efforts to eliminate the indirect effects of nutrient inputs, a reduction in soil moisture in the N + L plots cannot be eliminated as a cause of the invertebrate population changes observed. Even so, this experiment was not confounded by the physical effects of habitat structure reported in most previous studies. It provides evidence of moderate bottom-up influences of epigeic soil invertebrate food webs and distinguishes between nutrient addition and plant physical structure effects. It also emphasises the importance Of understanding the effects of soil management practices on soil biodiversity, which is under increasing pressure from land development and food production.

The importance of sward architectural complexity in structuring predatory and phytophagous invertebrate assemblages

1. Although the importance of plant community assemblages in structuring invertebrate assemblages is well known, the role that architectural complexity plays is less well understood. In particular, direct empirical data for a range of invertebrate taxa showing how functional groups respond to plant architecture is largely absent from the literature. 2. The significance of sward architectural complexity in determining the species richness of predatory and phytophagous functional groups of spiders, beetles, and true bugs, sampled from 135 field margin plots over 2 years was tested. The present study compares the relative importance of sward architectural complexity to that of plant community assemblage. 3. Sward architectural complexity was found to be a determinant of species richness for all phytophagous and predatory functional groups. When individual species responses were investigated, 62.5% of the spider and beetle species, and 50.0% of the true bugs responded to sward architectural complexity. 4. Interactions between sward architectural complexity and plant community assemblage indicate that the number of invertebrate species supported by the plant community alone could be increased by modification of sward architecture. Management practices could therefore play a key role in diversifying the architectural structure of existing floral assemblages for the benefit of invertebrate assemblages. 5. The contrasting effects of sward architecture on invertebrate functional groups characterised by either direct (phytophagous species) or indirect (predatory species) dependence on plant communities is discussed. It is suggested that for phytophagous taxa, plant community assemblage alone is likely to be insufficient to ensure successful species colonisation or persistence without appropriate development of sward architecture.

The effects of spatial and temporal heterogeneity on the population dynamics of four animal species in a Danish landscape

Background: Variation in carrying capacity and population return rates is generally ignored in traditional studies of population dynamics. Variation is hard to study in the field because of difficulties controlling the environment in order to obtain statistical replicates, and because of the scale and expense of experimenting on populations. There may also be ethical issues. To circumvent these problems we used detailed simulations of the simultaneous behaviours of interacting animals in an accurate facsimile of a real Danish landscape. The models incorporate as much as possible of the behaviour and ecology of skylarks Alauda arvensis, voles Microtus agrestis, a ground beetle Bembidion lampros and a linyphiid spider Erigone atra. This allows us to quantify and evaluate the importance of spatial and temporal heterogeneity on the population dynamics of the four species. Results: Both spatial and temporal heterogeneity affected the relationship between population growth rate and population density in all four species. Spatial heterogeneity accounted for 23–30% of the variance in population growth rate after accounting for the effects of density, reflecting big differences in local carrying capacity associated with the landscape features important to individual species. Temporal heterogeneity accounted for 3–13% of the variance in vole, skylark and spider, but 43% in beetles. The associated temporal variation in carrying capacity would be problematic in traditional analyses of density dependence. Return rates were less than one in all species and essentially invariant in skylarks, spiders and beetles. Return rates varied over the landscape in voles, being slower where there were larger fluctuations in local population sizes. Conclusion: Our analyses estimated the traditional parameters of carrying capacities and return rates, but these are now seen as varying continuously over the landscape depending on habitat quality and the mechanisms of density dependence. The importance of our results lies in our demonstration that the effects of spatial and temporal heterogeneity must be accounted for if we are to have accurate predictive models for use in management and conservation. This is an area which until now has lacked an adequate theoretical framework and methodology.

Clinical trial: the effects of a trans-galactooligosaccharide prebiotic on faecal microbiota and symptoms in irritable bowel syndrome

Gut microflora-mucosal interactions may be involved in the pathogenesis of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). To investigate the efficacy of a novel prebiotic trans-galactooligosaccharide in changing the colonic microflora and improve the symptoms in IBS sufferers. In all, 44 patients with Rome II positive IBS completed a 12-week single centre parallel crossover controlled clinical trial. Patients were randomized to receive either 3.5 g/d prebiotic, 7 g/d prebiotic or 7 g/d placebo. IBS symptoms were monitored weekly and scored according to a 7-point Likert scale. Changes in faecal microflora, stool frequency and form (Bristol stool scale) subjective global assessment (SGA), anxiety and depression and QOL scores were also monitored. The prebiotic significantly enhanced faecal bifidobacteria (3.5 g/d P < 0.005; 7 g/d P < 0.001). Placebo was without effect on the clinical parameters monitored, while the prebiotic at 3.5 g/d significantly changed stool consistency (P < 0.05), improved flatulence (P < 0.05) bloating (P < 0.05), composite score of symptoms (P < 0.05) and SGA (P < 0.05). The prebiotic at 7 g/d significantly improved SGA (P < 0.05) and anxiety scores (P < 0.05). The galactooligosaccharide acted as a prebiotic in specifically stimulating gut bifidobacteria in IBS patients and is effective in alleviating symptoms. These findings suggest that the prebiotic has potential as a therapeutic agent in IBS.

Liquid crystal phase formation by biopolymers

This review discusses liquid crystal phase formation by biopolymers in solution. Lyotropic mesophases have been observed for several classes of biopolymer including DNA, peptides, polymer/peptide conjugates, glycopolymers and proteoglycans. Nematic or chiral nematic (cholesteric) phases are the most commonly observed mesophases, in which the rod-like fibrils have only orientational order. Hexagonal columnar phases are observed for several systems (DNA, PBLG, polymer/peptide hybrids) at higher concentration. Lamellar (smectic) phases are reported less often, although there are examples such as the layer arrangement of amylopectin side chains in starch. Possible explanations for the observed structures are discussed. The biological role of liquid crystal phases for several of these systems is outlined. Commonly, they may serve as a template to align fibrils for defined structural roles when the biopolymer is extruded and dried, for instance in the production of silk by spiders or silkworms, or of chitin in arthropod shells. In other cases, liquid crystal phase formation may occur in vivo simply as a consequence of high concentration, for instance the high packing density of DNA within cell nuclei.

Dynamics of shear-induced orientation transitions in block copolymers

This review discusses liquid crystal phase formation by biopolymers in solution. Lyotropic mesophases have been observed for several classes of biopolymer including DNA, peptides, polymer/peptide conjugates, glycopolymers and proteoglycans. Nematic or chiral nematic (cholesteric) phases are the most commonly observed mesophases, in which the rod-like fibrils have only orientational order. Hexagonal columnar phases are observed for several systems (DNA, PBLG, polymer/peptide hybrids) at higher concentration. Lamellar (smectic) phases are reported less often, although there are examples such as the layer arrangement of amylopectin side chains in starch. Possible explanations for the observed structures are discussed. The biological role of liquid crystal phases for several of these systems is outlined. Commonly, they may serve as a template to align fibrils for defined structural roles when the biopolymer is extruded and dried, for instance in the production of silk by spiders or silkworms, or of chitin in arthropod shells. In other cases, liquid crystal phase formation may occur in vivo simply as a consequence of high concentration, for instance the high packing density of DNA within cell nuclei.

The effects of landscape modifications on the long-term persistence of animal populations

Background: The effects of landscape modifications on the long-term persistence of wild animal populations is of crucial importance to wildlife managers and conservation biologists, but obtaining experimental evidence using real landscapes is usually impossible. To circumvent this problem we used individual-based models (IBMs) of interacting animals in experimental modifications of a real Danish landscape. The models incorporate as much as possible of the behaviour and ecology of four species with contrasting life-history characteristics: skylark (Alauda arvensis), vole (Microtus agrestis), a ground beetle (Bembidion lampros) and a linyphiid spider (Erigone atra). This allows us to quantify the population implications of experimental modifications of landscape configuration and composition. Methodology/Principal Findings: Starting with a real agricultural landscape, we progressively reduced landscape complexity by (i) homogenizing habitat patch shapes, (ii) randomizing the locations of the patches, and (iii) randomizing the size of the patches. The first two steps increased landscape fragmentation. We assessed the effects of these manipulations on the long-term persistence of animal populations by measuring equilibrium population sizes and time to recovery after disturbance. Patch rearrangement and the presence of corridors had a large effect on the population dynamics of species whose local success depends on the surrounding terrain. Landscape modifications that reduced population sizes increased recovery times in the short-dispersing species, making small populations vulnerable to increasing disturbance. The species that were most strongly affected by large disturbances fluctuated little in population sizes in years when no perturbations took place. Significance: Traditional approaches to the management and conservation of populations use either classical methods of population analysis, which fail to adequately account for the spatial configurations of landscapes, or landscape ecology, which accounts for landscape structure but has difficulty predicting the dynamics of populations living in them. Here we show how realistic and replicable individual-based models can bridge the gap between non-spatial population theory and non-dynamic landscape ecology. A major strength of the approach is its ability to identify population vulnerabilities not detected by standard population viability analyses.

Future Monument

Based on a series of collage made from images of mega yachts, the Future Monument looks at the possibility of taking late capitalism more seriously as an ideology than it takes itself seriously. The project asks whether the private display of wealth and power represented by the yacht can be appropriated for a new language of public sculpture. The choreographed live performance of the construction of the large scale monument was scripted to a proposed capitalist manifesto and took place in a public square in Herzliya, Israel. It aimed to articulate the ideology latent in capitalism’s claims to a neutral manifestation of human nature. The Future Monument project was developed through reading seminars taking place at Goldsmiths College, as part of a research strand headed by Pil and Galia Kollectiv on irony and overidentification within the Political Currency of Art research group. This research has so far produced a series of silk screen collage prints, a sculpture commissioned by the Essex Council and a live performance commissioned by the Herzliya Biennale. However, the project is ongoing, with future outputs planned including a curated exhibition and conference in 2012, in collaboration with Matthew Poole, Programme Director of the Centre for Curatorial Studies at the University of Essex.

Mites Parasitic on Australasian and African Spiders Found in the Pet Trade; a Redescription of Ljunghia pulleinei Womersley

Parasitic mites associated with spiders are spreading world-wide through the trade in tarantulas and other pet species. Ljunghia pulleinei Womersley, a mesostigmatic laelapid mite originally found in association with the mygalomorph spider Selenocosmia stirlingi Hogg (Theraphosidae) in Australia, is redescribed and illustrated on the basis of specimens from the African theraphosid spider Pterinochilus chordatus (Gersta¨cker) kept in captivity in the British Isles (Wales). The mite is known from older original descriptions of Womersley in 1956; the subsequent redescription of Domrow in 1975 seems to be questionable in conspecificity of treated specimens with the type material. Some inconsistencies in both descriptions are recognised here as intraspecific variability of the studied specimens. The genus Arachnyssus Ma, with species A. guangxiensis (type) and A. huwenae, is not considered to be a valid genus, and is included in synonymy with Ljunghia Oudemans. A new key to world species of the genus Ljunghia is provided.

Recovery based on plot experiments is a poor predictor of landscape-level population impacts of agricultural pesticides

Current European Union regulatory risk assessment allows application of pesticides provided that recovery of nontarget arthropods in-crop occurs within a year. Despite the long-established theory of source-sink dynamics, risk assessment ignores depletion of surrounding populations and typical field trials are restricted to plot-scale experiments. In the present study, the authors used agent-based modeling of 2 contrasting invertebrates, a spider and a beetle, to assess how the area of pesticide application and environmental half-life affect the assessment of recovery at the plot scale and impact the population at the landscape scale. Small-scale plot experiments were simulated for pesticides with different application rates and environmental half-lives. The same pesticides were then evaluated at the landscape scale (10 km × 10 km) assuming continuous year-on-year usage. The authors' results show that recovery time estimated from plot experiments is a poor indicator of long-term population impact at the landscape level and that the spatial scale of pesticide application strongly determines population-level impact. This raises serious doubts as to the utility of plot-recovery experiments in pesticide regulatory risk assessment for population-level protection. Predictions from the model are supported by empirical evidence from a series of studies carried out in the decade starting in 1988. The issues raised then can now be addressed using simulation. Prediction of impacts at landscape scales should be more widely used in assessing the risks posed by environmental stressors.