Rolle der gemeinsamen Expression von AML1-ETO und weiteren Onkogenen für die Induktion von Leukämie

Akute Leukämien treten in allen Altersstufen auf. Akute lymphatische Leukämie (ALL) ist die häufigste Leukämie bei Kindern, während akute myeloischen Leukämien (AML) mit verschiedenen Untergruppen etwa 80% aller akuten Leukämien bei Erwachsenen ausmachen. Die Translokation t(8;21) resultiert in der Entstehung des Fusionsgens AML1-ETO und zählt zu den häufigen Translokationen bei der AML. Dabei fusioniert die DNA-bindende Domäne des AML1 mit dem fast kompletten ETO-Protein. AML1-ETO wirkt als dominanter Repressor der AML1-vermittelten transkriptionellen Regula-tion wichtiger hämatopoetischer Zielgene. Klinische Daten legen nahe, dass trotz der klarer Assoziation zwischen AML und der t(8;21) Translokation bei AML Patienten zusätzliche genetische Veränderungen – so genannte ‚second hits‘ – notwendig sind, um eine Leukämie effizient zu induzieren. Klinisch relevanten Komplimentationsonkogene sind unter anderen die aktivierte Rezeptortyrosinkinase FLT3, JAK2, NRAS, KRAS, c- KIT.rnZiel der vorliegenden Arbeit war es, ein Mausmodell zu etablieren, welches humane akute myeloische Leukämie rekapituliert und bei dem die Expression der entsprechen-den Onkogene reguliert werden kann. Als erstes wurde untersucht, ob eine gemeinsame Expression von AML1-ETO mit kRASG12D zur Induktion von Leukämie führen kann. Hierfür wurden Tiere generiert die gemeinsam AML1-ETO und kRASG12D unter der regulatorischen Sequenz des Tetrazyklin-Operators exprimierten. Der große Vorteil dieser Technologie ist die regulierbare Reversibilität der Genexpression. Um die Ex-pression der Zielgene auf blutbildende Zellen zu beschränken, wurden Knochenmark-chimären hergestellt. Im Beobachtungszeitraum von 12 Monaten führte die Expression von AML1-ETO und AML1-ETO/kRASG12D nicht zur Induktion einer akuten Leukä-mie. Die normale hämatopoetische Entwicklung war jedoch in diesen Tieren gestört. Der beobachtete Phänotyp entsprach einem myelodysplastischen Syndrome (MDS).rnIm zweiten Ansatz, wurden Tiere generiert die gemeinsam AML1-ETO und FLT3-ITD exprimierten. Hierfür wurden hämatopoetische Stammzellen aus ROSA26-iM2/tetO-AML1-ETO isoliert und mit Hilfe des retroviralen Vektors mit FLT3-ITD transduziert. In diesem Modell war es möglich, in kurzer Zeit eine akute Leukämie mit zu induzieren. Einige wenige Tiere hatten zum Zeitpunkt des Todes Anzeichen einer biphänotypischen Leukämie mit lymphatischen und myeloischen Blastenpopulationen. In drei Tieren in-duzierte die alleinige Expression von FLT3-ITD eine Leukämie. Alle Leukämien wurden durch FACS, Zytologie und Histopathologie bestätigt. Knochenmark- bzw. Milzzellen aus den erkrankten Tieren waren in der Lage nach Transfer in sekundäre Rezipienten eine Leukämie auszulösen. Somit besaßen sie ein uneingeschränktes Selbsterneue-rungspotential.rnEin erster Versuch, in dem AML1-ETO Expression in leukämischen Zellen abgeschaltet und FLT3-ITD mit Tyrosinkinase-Inhibitor inhibiert wurde, zeigte keine wesentliche Veränderung in der Leukämieprogression.rnDieses Leukämiemodell erlaubt die Rolle der beteiligten Onkogene während verschie-dener Stadien der Leukämie zu erforschen und damit möglicherweise neue Ansätze für Therapiestrategien zu entwickeln.

Posttranskriptionale Regulation von Myelin-mRNAs

Die Myelinisierung neuronaler Axone ermöglicht eine schnelle und energieeffiziente Weiterleitung von Informationen im Nervensystem. Durch lokale Synthese von Myelinproteinen kann die Myelinschicht, zeitlich und räumlich reguliert, gebildet werden. Dieser Prozess ist abhängig von verschiedensten axonalen Eigenschaften und muss damit lokal reguliert werden. Die Myelinisierung im zentralen sowie im peripheren Nervensystem hängt unter anderem stark von kleinen regulatorischen RNA Molekülen ab. In Oligodendrozyten wird das Myelin Basische Protein (MBP) von der sncRNA715 translational reguliert, indem diese direkt innerhalb der 3’UTR der Mbp mRNA bindet und damit die Proteinsynthese verhindert. Mbp mRNA wird in hnRNP A2‐enthaltenen RNA Granula in die Zellperipherie transportiert, wo in Antwort auf axonale Signale die membranständige Tyrosin‐ Kinase Fyn aktiviert wird, welche Granula‐Komponenten wie hnRNP A2 und F phosphoryliert wodurch die lokale Translation initiiert wird. Während des Transports wird die mRNA durch die Bindung der sncRNA715 translational reprimiert. SncRNAs bilden zusammen mit Argonaut‐Proteinen den microRNA induced silencing complex (miRISC), welcher die translationale Inhibition oder den Abbau von mRNAs vermittelt. In der vorliegenden Arbeit sollte zum einen die Regulation der sncRNA715‐abhängigen translationalen Repression der Mbp mRNA in oligodendroglialen Zellen genauer untersucht werden und im zweiten Teil wurde die Rolle der sncRNA715 in den myelinbildenden Zellen des peripheren Nervensystems, den Schwann Zellen, analysiert. Es konnte in oligodendroglialen Zellen die mRNA‐Expression der vier, in Säugern bekannten Argonaut‐Proteinen nachgewiesen werden. Außerdem konnten die beiden Proteine Ago1 und Ago2 in vitro sowie in vivo detektiert werden. Ago2 interagiert mit hnRNP A2, Mbp mRNA und sncRNA715, womit es als neue Komponente des Mbp mRNA Transportgranulas identifiziert werden konnte. Des Weiteren colokalisiert Ago2 mit der Fyn‐Kinase und alle vier Argonaut‐Proteine werden Fyn‐abhängig Tyrosin‐phosphoryliert. Die Fyn‐abhängige Phosphorylierung der Granula‐Komponenten in Antwort auf axo‐glialen Kontakt führt zum Zerfall des RNA‐Granulas und zur gesteigerten MBP Proteinsynthese. Dies wird möglicherweise durch Abstoßungskräfte der negativ geladenen phosphorylierten Proteine vermittelt, wodurch diese sich voneinander und von der mRNA entfernen. Durch die Ablösung des miRISCs von der Mbp mRNA wird die Translation möglicherweise reaktiviert und die Myelinisierung kann starten. Mit der Identifizierung von Ago2 als neuer Mbp mRNA Transportgranula‐Komponente konnte ein weiterer Einblick in die Regulation der lokalen Translation von MBP gewährt werden. Das Verständnis dieses Prozesses ist entscheidend für die Entwicklung neuer Therapien von demyelinisierenden Erkrankungen, da neue Faktoren als eventuelle Ziele für pharmakologische Manipulationen identifiziert und möglichweise neue Therapiemöglichkeiten entstehen könnten. Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit wurde die translationale Regulation von Mbp mRNA in Schwann Zellen untersucht. Auch Schwann Zell‐Mbp wird als mRNA translational inaktiviert zur axo‐glialen Kontaktstelle transportiert, wo vermutlich auch lokale Translation in Antwort auf spezifische Signale stattfindet. Allerdings bleiben die genauen Mechanismen der mRNA‐Lokalisation und damit verbundenen translationalen Repression bislang ungeklärt. Es konnte hier gezeigt werden, dass auch in Schwann Zellen die sncRNA715 exprimiert wird und die Translation von Mbp reguliert. Überexpression der synthetischen sncRNA715 führt zu einer signifikanten Reduktion der MBP Proteinmengen in differenzierten primären Schwann Zellen. Damit kann vermutet werden, dass die Regulation der lokalen MBP Proteinsynthese in Schwann Zellen der in Oligodendrozyten ähnelt

MET inhibition in tumor cells by PHA665752 impairs homologous recombination repair of DNA double strand breaks

Abnormal activation of cellular DNA repair pathways by deregulated signaling of receptor tyrosine kinase systems has broad implications for both cancer biology and treatment. Recent studies suggest a potential link between DNA repair and aberrant activation of the hepatocyte growth factor receptor Mesenchymal-Epithelial Transition (MET), an oncogene that is overexpressed in numerous types of human tumors and considered a prime target in clinical oncology. Using the homologous recombination (HR) direct-repeat direct-repeat green fluorescent protein ((DR)-GFP) system, we show that MET inhibition in tumor cells with deregulated MET activity by the small molecule PHA665752 significantly impairs in a dose-dependent manner HR. Using cells that express MET-mutated variants that respond differentially to PHA665752, we confirm that the observed HR inhibition is indeed MET-dependent. Furthermore, our data also suggest that decline in HR-dependent DNA repair activity is not a secondary effect due to cell cycle alterations caused by PHA665752. Mechanistically, we show that MET inhibition affects the formation of the RAD51-BRCA2 complex, which is crucial for error-free HR repair of double strand DNA lesions, presumably via downregulation and impaired translocation of RAD51 into the nucleus. Taken together, these findings assist to further support the role of MET in the cellular DNA damage response and highlight the potential future benefit of MET inhibitors for the sensitization of tumor cells to DNA damaging agents.

Crohn's disease-associated polymorphism within the PTPN2 gene affects muramyl-dipeptide-induced cytokine secretion and autophagy

The single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs2542151 within the gene locus region encoding protein tyrosine phosphatase non-receptor type 2 (PTPN2) has been associated with Crohn's disease (CD), ulcerative colitis (UC), type-I diabetes, and rheumatoid arthritis. We have previously shown that PTPN2 regulates mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling and cytokine secretion in human THP-1 monocytes and intestinal epithelial cells (IEC). Here, we studied whether intronic PTPN2 SNP rs1893217 regulates immune responses to the nucleotide-oligomerization domain 2 (NOD2) ligand, muramyl-dipeptide (MDP).

Vascular endothelial growth factor-A and aldosterone: relevance to normal pregnancy and preeclampsia

Aldosterone levels are markedly elevated during normal pregnancy but fall even though volume contracts when preeclampsia occurs. The level of aldosterone in either condition cannot be explained solely by the activity of the renin-angiotensin II system. In normal gestation, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is thought to maintain vascular health, but its role in adrenal hormone production is unknown. We hypothesized that the role of VEGF in the adrenal gland is to maintain vascular health and regulate aldosterone production. Here, we demonstrate that supernatant of endothelial cells grown in the presence of VEGF enhanced aldosterone synthase activity in human adrenocortical cells. VEGF either alone or combined with angiotensin II increased aldosterone production in adrenal cells. These data suggest that endothelial cell-dependent and independent activation of aldosterone is regulated by VEGF. In contrast to angiotensin II, VEGF did not upregulate the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein. Consistent with this observation, angiotensin II stimulated both aldosterone and cortisol synthesis from progesterone, whereas VEGF stimulated selectively aldosterone production. In rats, overexpression of soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase-1, an endogenous VEGF inhibitor, led to adrenocortical capillary rarefaction and fall in aldosterone concentrations that correlated inversely with soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase-1 levels. These findings may explain why aldosterone increases so markedly during normal gestation and why preeclampsia, a condition characterized by high soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase-1, is associated with inappropriately low aldosterone levels in spite of relatively lower plasma volumes.

Modulation of signal transduction by vitamin E

The ability of vitamin E to modulate signal transduction and gene expression has been observed in numerous studies; however, the detailed molecular mechanisms involved are often not clear. The eight natural vitamin E analogues and synthetic derivatives affect signal transduction with different potency, possibly reflecting their different ability to interact with specific proteins. Vitamin E modulates the activity of several enzymes involved in signal transduction, such as protein kinase C, protein kinase B, protein tyrosine kinases, 5-, 12-, and 15-lipoxygenases, cyclooxygenase-2, phospholipase A2, protein phosphatase 2A, protein tyrosine phosphatase, and diacylglycerol kinase. Activation of some these enzymes after stimulation of cell surface receptors with growth factors or cytokines can be normalized by vitamin E. At the molecular level, the translocation of several of these enzymes to the plasma membrane is affected by vitamin E, suggesting that the modulation of protein-membrane interactions may be a common theme for vitamin E action. In this review the main effects of vitamin E on enzymes involved in signal transduction are summarized and the possible mechanisms leading to enzyme modulation evaluated. The elucidation of the molecular and cellular events affected by vitamin E could reveal novel strategies and molecular targets for developing similarly acting compounds.

Serum markers for predicting pre-eclampsia

Pre-eclampsia, a pregnancy-specific disorder, contributes substantially to perinatal morbidity and mortality of both, mother and newborn. An increasing number of biochemical agents were evaluated as markers for predicting pre-eclampsia. None of them has been proved to be of clinical value yet. Much effort has been put into assessing novel potential markers and their combination with other screening methods such as Doppler sonography. The purpose of this review is to reflect the current knowledge of serum markers for predicting pre-eclampsia. So far, the most promising serum markers are placental protein 13 (PP-13), as well as soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase-1 (sFlt-1), placental growth factor (PIGF) and soluble endoglin (sEng). These markers allow screening at a relatively early stage and, most importantly, show relatively high predictive values and improved diagnostic performance if combined with first trimester Doppler sonography. Large-scale prospective studies, assessing these markers, are important to justify their clinical use in view of early intervention to prevent pre-eclampsia in the future.

Angiopoietin-1 and angiopoietin-2 share the same binding domains in the Tie-2 receptor involving the first Ig-like loop and the epidermal growth factor-like repeats

Angiopoietin-1 (Ang-1) and angiopoietin-2 (Ang-2) have been identified as ligands with different effector functions of the vascular assembly and maturation-mediating receptor tyrosine kinase Tie-2. To understand the molecular interactions of the angiopoietins with their receptor, we have studied the binding of Ang-1 and Ang-2 to the Tie-2 receptor. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay-based competition assays and co-immunoprecipitation experiments analyzing the binding of Ang-1 and Ang-2 to truncation mutants of the extracellular domain of Tie-2 showed that the first Ig-like loop of Tie-2 in combination with the epidermal growth factor (EGF)-like repeats (amino acids 1-360) is required for angiopoietin binding. The first Ig-like domain or the EGF-like repeats alone are not capable of binding Ang-1 and Ang-2. Concomitantly, we made the surprising finding that Tie-2 exon-2 knockout mice do express a mutated Tie-2 protein that lacks 104 amino acids of the first Ig-like domain. This mutant Tie-2 receptor is functionally inactive as shown by the lack of ligand binding and receptor phosphorylation. Collectively, the data show that the first 104 amino acids of the Tie-2 receptor are essential but not sufficient for angiopoietin binding. Conversely, the first 360 amino acids (Ig-like domain plus EGF-like repeats) of the Tie-2 receptor are necessary and sufficient to bind both Ang-1 and Ang-2, which suggests that differential receptor binding is not likely to be responsible for the different functions of Ang-1 and Ang-2.

Tie2 receptor expression and phosphorylation in cultured cells and mouse tissues

Accumulating experimental evidence indicates that endothelial cell growth and blood vessel morphogenesis are processes that are governed by the activity of specifically expressed receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs). We have used two new rat monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) to study the expression and phosphorylation of one such receptor, mouse Tie2 (tyrosine kinase that contains immunoglobulin-like loops and epidermal-growth-factor-similar domains 2]), in transfected cells, endothelioma cell lines and mouse tissues. The Tie2 receptor was found to be constitutively autophosphorylated when over-expressed in COS7 cells. In contrast, the endogenous Tie2 protein was not phosphorylated in endothelioma cell lines. However, in these cell lines, Tie2 could be induced to become tyrosine phosphorylated, and this activation was found to be independent of Tie1. Studying Tie2 receptor activity during angiogenesis in mouse development, the receptor was only weakly phosphorylated in the early postnatal mouse brain whereas a stronger activation could be detected in mouse embryos at day 10.5 post coitum.

An open-label, noncomparative phase II trial to evaluate the efficacy and safety of docetaxel in combination with gefitinib in patients with hormone-refractory metastatic prostate cancer

BACKGROUND: Prostate cancer is the most common type of cancer in men, however, therapeutic options are limited. 50-90% of hormone-refractory prostate cancer cells show an overexpression of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), which may contribute to uncontrolled proliferation and resistance to chemotherapy. In vitro, gefitinib, an orally administered tyrosine kinase inhibitor, has shown a significant increase in antitumor activity when combined with chemotherapy. PATIENTS AND METHODS: In this phase II study, the safety and efficacy of gefitinib in combination with docetaxel, a chemotherapeutic agent commonly used for prostate cancer, was investigated in patients with hormone-refractory prostate cancer (HRPC). 37 patients with HRPC were treated continuously with gefitinib 250 mg once daily and docetaxel 35 mg/m2 i.v. for up to 6 cycles. PSA response, defined as a =50% decrease in serum PSA compared with trial entry, was the primary efficacy parameter. PSA levels were measured at prescribed intervals. RESULTS: The response rate and duration of response were consistent with those seen with docetaxel monotherapy. The combination of docetaxel and gefitinib was reasonably well tolerated in this study. CONCLUSION: Future studies should investigate whether patients with specific tumor characteristics, e.g. EGFR protein overexpression, respond better to gefitinib than patients without, leading to a more customized therapy option.

Ligand binding induces Cbl-dependent EphB1 receptor degradation through the lysosomal pathway

Eph receptor tyrosine kinases play a critical role in embryonic patterning and angiogenesis. In the adult, they are involved in carcinogenesis and pathological neovascularization. However, the mechanisms underlying their role in tumor formation and metastasis remain to be defined. Here, we demonstrated that stimulation of EphB1 with ephrinB1/Fc led to a marked downregulation of EphB1 protein, a process blocked by the lysosomal inhibitor bafilomycin. Following ephrinB1 stimulation, the ubiquitin ligase Cbl was recruited by EphB1 and then phosphorylated. Both Cbl phosphorylation and EphB1 ubiquitination were blocked by the Src inhibitor PP2. Overexpression of wild-type Cbl, but not of 70Z mutant lacking ligase activity, enhanced EphB1 ubiquitination and degradation. This negative regulation required the tyrosine kinase activity of EphB1 as kinase-dead EphB1-K652R was resistant to Cbl. Glutathione S-transferase binding experiments showed that Cbl bound to EphB1 through its tyrosine kinase-binding domain. In aggregate, we demonstrated that Cbl induces the ubiquitination and lysosomal degradation of activated EphB1, a process requiring EphB1 and Src kinase activity. To our knowledge, this is the first study dissecting the molecular mechanisms leading to EphB1 downregulation, thus paving the way to new means of modulating their angiogenic and tumorigenic properties.

L-amino acid oxidase from Naja atra venom activates and binds to human platelets

An L-amino acid oxidase (LAAO), NA-LAAO, was purified from the venom of Naja atra. Its N-terminal sequence shows great similarity with LAAOs from other snake venoms. NA-LAAO dose-dependently induced aggregation of washed human platelets. However, it had no activity on platelets in platelet-rich plasma. A low concentration of NA-LAAO greatly promoted the effect of hydrogen peroxide, whereas hydrogen peroxide itself had little activation effect on platelets. NA-LAAO induced tyrosine phosphorylation of a number of platelet proteins including Src kinase, spleen tyrosine kinase, and phospholipase Cgamma2. Unlike convulxin, Fc receptor gamma chain and T lymphocyte adapter protein are not phosphorylated in NA-LAAO-activated platelets, suggesting an activation mechanism different from the glycoprotein VI pathway. Catalase inhibited the platelet aggregation and platelet protein phosphorylation induced by NA-LAAO. NA-LAAO bound to fixed platelets as well as to platelet lysates of Western blots. Furthermore, affinity chromatography of platelet proteins on an NA-LAAO-Sepharose 4B column isolated a few platelet membrane proteins, suggesting that binding of NA-LAAO to the platelet membrane might play a role in its action on platelets.

Evidence that the novel receptor FGFRL1 signals indirectly via FGFR1

Fibroblast growth factor (FGF) receptor-like protein 1 (FGFRL1) is a recently discovered member of the FGF receptor (FGFR) family. Similar to the classical FGFRs, it contains three extracellular immunoglobulin-like domains and interacts with FGF ligands. However, in contrast to the classical receptors, it does not contain any intracellular tyrosine kinase domain and consequently cannot signal by transphosphorylation. In mouse kidneys, FgfrL1 is expressed primarily at embryonic stages E14-E15 in regions where nascent nephrons develop. In this study, we used whole-mount in situ hybridization to show the spatial pattern of five different Fgfrs in the developing mouse kidney. We compared the expression pattern of FgfrL1 with that of other Fgfrs. The expression pattern of FgfrL1 closely resembled that of Fgfr1, but clearly differed from that of Fgfr2‑Fgfr4. It is therefore conceivable that FgfrL1 signals indirectly via Fgfr1. The mechanisms by which FgfrL1 affects the activity of Fgfr1 remain to be elucidated.

EGFR exon-level biomarkers of the response to bevacizumab/erlotinib in non-small cell lung cancer

Activating epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) mutations are recognized biomarkers for patients with metastatic non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) treated with EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs). EGFR TKIs can also have activity against NSCLC without EGFR mutations, requiring the identification of additional relevant biomarkers. Previous studies on tumor EGFR protein levels and EGFR gene copy number revealed inconsistent results. The aim of the study was to identify novel biomarkers of the response to TKIs in NSCLC by investigating whole genome expression at the exon-level. We used exon arrays and clinical samples from a previous trial (SAKK19/05) to investigate the expression variations at the exon-level of 3 genes potentially playing a key role in modulating treatment response: EGFR, V-Ki-ras2 Kirsten rat sarcoma viral oncogene homolog (KRAS) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGFA). We identified the expression of EGFR exon 18 as a new predictive marker for patients with untreated metastatic NSCLC treated with bevacizumab and erlotinib in the first line setting. The overexpression of EGFR exon 18 in tumor was significantly associated with tumor shrinkage, independently of EGFR mutation status. A similar significant association could be found in blood samples. In conclusion, exonic EGFR expression particularly in exon 18 was found to be a relevant predictive biomarker for response to bevacizumab and erlotinib. Based on these results, we propose a new model of EGFR testing in tumor and blood.

CIP4 and Src in Promoting the Migration and Invasion of Breast Cancers

Cellular invasion represents a critical early step in the metastatic cascade, and many proteins have been identified as part of an “invasive signature.” The non-receptor tyrosine kinase Src is commonly upregulated in breast cancers, often in conjunction with overexpression of EGFR. Signaling from this pathway stimulates cell proliferation, migration, and invasion and frequently involves proteins that regulate the cytoskeleton. My data demonstrates that inhibition of Src, using the small-molecule inhibitor dasatinib, impairs cellular migration and invasion. Furthermore, Src inhibition sensitizes the cells to the effects of the chemotherapeutic doxorubicin resulting in dramatic, synergistic inhibition of proliferation with combination treatments. The Src-targeted protein CIP4 (Cdc42-interacting protein 4) associates with curved plasma membranes to scaffold complexes of Cdc42 and N-WASp. In these experiments, I show that CIP4 overexpression correlates with triple-negative biomarker status, cellular migration, and invasion of (breast cancer cells. Inhibition of CIP4 expression significantly decreases migration and invasion. Furthermore, I demonstrate the novel finding that CIP4 localizes to invadopodia, which are finger-like projections of the actin cytoskeleton that are associated with matrix degradation and cellular invasion. Depletion of CIP4 in invasive cells impairs the formation of invadopodia and the degradation of gelatin. Therefore, CIP4 is a critical component of the invasive phenotype acquired by human breast cancer cells. In this body of work, I propose a model in which CIP4 promotes actin polymerization by stabilizing the active conformation of N-WASp. CIP4 and N-WASp are both phosphorylated by Src, implicating this pathway in Src-dependent cytoskeletal rearragement. This represents a novel role for F-BAR proteins in migration and invasion.