Characterization of the phosphorylation sites involved in G protein-coupled receptor kinase- and protein kinase C-mediated desensitization of the alpha1B-adrenergic receptor.

Catecholamines as well as phorbol esters can induce the phosphorylation and desensitization of the alpha1B-adrenergic receptor (alpha1BAR). In this study, phosphoamino acid analysis of the phosphorylated alpha1BAR revealed that both epinephrine- and phorbol ester-induced phosphorylation predominantly occurs at serine residues of the receptor. The findings obtained with receptor mutants in which portions of the C-tail were truncated or deleted indicated that a region of 21 amino acids (393-413) of the carboxyl terminus including seven serines contains the main phosphorylation sites involved in agonist- as well as phorbol ester-induced phosphorylation and desensitization of the alpha1BAR. To identify the serines invoved in agonist- versus phorbol ester-dependent regulation of the receptor, two different strategies were adopted, the seven serines were either substituted with alanine or reintroduced into a mutant lacking all of them. Our findings indicate that Ser394 and Ser400 were phosphorylated following phorbol ester-induced activation of protein kinase C, whereas Ser404, Ser408, and Ser410 were phosphorylated upon stimulation of the alpha1BAR with epinephrine. The observation that overexpression of G protein-coupled kinase 2 (GRK2) could increase agonist-induced phosphorylation of Ser404, Ser408, and Ser410, strongly suggests that these serines are the phosphorylation sites of the alpha1BAR for kinases of the GRK family. Phorbol ester-induced phosphorylation of the Ser394 and Ser400 as well as GRK2-mediated phosphorylation of the Ser404, Ser408, and Ser410, resulted in the desensitization of alpha1BAR-mediated inositol phosphate response. This study provides generalities about the biochemical mechanisms underlying homologous and heterologous desensitization of G protein-coupled receptors linked to the activation of phospholipase C.

Vitamin D Receptor and Jak-STAT Signaling Crosstalk Results in Calcitriol-Mediated Increase of Hepatocellular Response to IFN-α.

Recent clinical research suggests a role for vitamin D in the response to IFN-α-based therapy of chronic hepatitis C. Therefore, we aimed to explore the underlying mechanisms in vitro. Huh-7.5 cells harboring subgenomic hepatitis C virus (HCV) replicons or infected with cell culture-derived HCV were exposed to bioactive 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (calcitriol) with or without IFN-α. In these experiments, calcitriol alone had no effect on the HCV life cycle. However, calcitriol enhanced the inhibitory effect of IFN-α on HCV replication. This effect was based on a calcitriol-mediated increase of IFN-α-induced gene expression. Further mechanistic studies revealed a constitutive inhibitory interaction between the inactive vitamin D receptor (VDR) and Stat1, which was released upon stimulation with calcitriol and IFN-α. As a consequence, IFN-α-induced binding of phosphorylated Stat1 to its DNA target sequences was enhanced by calcitriol. Importantly, and in line with these observations, silencing of the VDR resulted in an enhanced hepatocellular response to IFN-α. Our findings identify the VDR as a novel suppressor of IFN-α-induced signaling through the Jak-STAT pathway.

Regulation of sodium transport in the cortical collecting duct : physiological role of GILZ in vitro and in vivo : characterisation of Na+ transport in the mCCDcl1 cell line

SUMMARY Regulation of sodium excretion by the kidney is a key mechanism in the long term regulation of blood pressure, and when altered it constitutes a risk factor for the appearance of arterial hypertension. Aldosterone, which secretion depends upon salt intake in the diet, is a steroid hormone that regulates sodium reabsorption in the distal part of the nephron (functional unit of the kidney) by modulating gene transcription. It has been shown that it can act synergistically with the peptidic hormone insulin through the interaction of their signalisation pathways. Our work consisted of two distinct parts: 1) the in vitro and in vivo characterisation of Glucocorticoid-Induced Leucine Zipper (GILZ) (an aldosterone-induced gene) mechanism of action; 2) the in vitro characterisation of insulin mechanism of action and its interaction with aldosterone. GILZ mRNA, coded by the TSC22D3 gene, is strongly induced by aldosterone in the cell line of principal cells of the cortical collecting duct (CCD) mpkCCDc14, suggesting that GILZ is a mediator of aldosterone response. Co-expression of GILZ and the amiloride-sensitive epithelial sodium channel ENaC in vitro in the Xenopus oocyte expression system showed that GILZ has no direct effect on the ENaC-mediated Na+ current in basal conditions. To define the role of GILZ in the kidney and in other organs (colon, heart, skin, etc.), a conditional knock-out mouse is being produced and will allow the in vivo study of its role. Previous data showed that insulin induced a transepithelial sodium transport at supraphysiological concentrations. Insulin and the insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) are able to bind to each other receptor with an affinity 50 to 100 times lower than to their cognate receptor. Our starting hypothesis was that the insulin effect observed at these supraphysiological concentrations is actually mediated by the IGF receptor type 1 (IGF-1R). In a new cell line that presents all the characteristics of the principal cells of the CCD (mCCDc11) we have shown that both insulin and IGF-1 induce a physiologically significant increase of Na+ transport through the activation of IGF-1R. Aldosterone and insulin/IGF-1 have an additive effect on Na+ transport, through the activation of the PI3-kinase (PI3-K) pathway and the phosphorylation of the serum- and glucocorticoid-induced kinase 1 (Sgk1) by the IGF-1R, and the induction of Sgk1 expression by aldosterone. Thus, Sgk1 integrates IGF-1/insulin and aldosterone effects. We suggest that IGF-1 is physiologically relevant in the modulation of sodium balance, while insulin can only regulate Na+ transport at supraphysiological conditions. Both hormones would bind to the IGF-1R and induce Na+ transport by activating the PI3-K PDK1/2 - Sgk1 pathway. We have shown for the first time that Sgk1 is expressed and phosphorylated in principal cells of the CCD in basal conditions, although the mechanism that maintains Sgk1 phosphorylation is not known. This new role for IGF-1 suggests that it could be a salt susceptibility gene. In effect, IGF-1 stimulates Na+ and water transport in the kidney in vivo. Moreover, 35 % of the acromegalic patients (overproduction of growth hormone and IGF-1) are hypertensives (higher proportion than in normal population), and genetic analysis suggest a link between the IGF-1 gene locus and blood pressure. RÉSUMÉ La régulation de l'excrétion rénale de sodium (Na+) joue un rôle principal dans le contrôle à long terme de la pression sanguine, et ses altérations constituent un facteur de risque de l'apparition d'une hypertension artérielle. L'aldosterone, dont la sécrétion dépend de l'apport en sel dans la diète, est une hormone stéroïdienne qui régule la réabsorption de Na+ dans la partie distale du nephron (unité fonctionnelle du rein) en contrôlant la transcription de gènes. Elle peut agir de façon synergistique avec l'hormone peptidique insuline, probablement via l'interaction de leurs voies de signalisation cellulaire. Le but de notre travail comportait deux volets: 1) caractériser in vitro et in vivo le mécanisme d'action du Glucocorticoid Induced Leucine Zipper (GILZ) (un gène induit par l'aldosterone); 2) caractériser in vitro le mécanisme d'action de l'insuline et son interaction avec l'aldosterone. L'ARNm de GILZ, codé par le gène TSC22D3, est induit par l'aldosterone dans la lignée cellulaire de cellules principales du tubule collecteur cortical (CCD) mpkCCDc14, suggérant que GILZ est un médiateur potentiel de la réponse à l'aldosterone. La co-expression in vitro de GILZ et du canal à Na+ sensible à l'amiloride ENaC dans le système d'expression de l'oocyte de Xénope a montré que GILZ n'a pas d'effet sur les courants sodiques véhiculées par ENaC en conditions basales. Une souris knock-out conditionnelle de GILZ est en train d'être produite et permettra l'étude in vivo de son rôle dans le rein et d'autres organes. Des expériences préliminaires ont montré que l'insuline induit un transport transépithelial de Na+ à des concentrations supraphysiologiques. L'insuline et l'insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) peuvent se lier à leurs récepteurs réciproques avec une affinité 50 à 100 fois moindre qu'à leur propre récepteur. Nous avons donc proposé que l'effet de l'insuline soit médié par le récepteur à l'IGF type 1 (IGF-1R). Dans une nouvelle lignée cellulaire qui présente toutes les caractéristiques des cellules principales du CCD (mCCDc11) nous avons montré que les deux hormones induisent une augmentation physiologiquement significative du transport du Na+ par l'activation des IGF-1 R. Aldosterone et insuline/IGF-1 ont un effet additif sur le transport de Na+, via l'activation de la voie de la PI3-kinase et la phosphorylation de la serum- and glucocorticoid-induced kinase 1 (Sgk1) par l'IGF-1R, dont l'expression est induite par l'aldosterone. Sgk1 intègre les effets de l'insuline et l'aldosterone. Nous proposons que l'IGF-1 joue un rôle dans la modulation physiologique de la balance sodique, tandis que l'insuline régule le transport de Na+ à des concentrations supraphysiologiques. Les deux hormones agissent en se liant à l'IGF-1R et induisent le transport de Na+ en activant la cascade de signalisation PI3-K - PDK1/2 - Sgk1. Nous avons montré pour la première fois que Sgk1 est exprimée et phosphorylée dans des conditions basales dans les cellules principales du CCD, mais le mécanisme qui maintient sa phosphorylation n'est pas connu. Ce nouveau rôle pour l'IGF-1 suggère qu'il pourrait être un gène impliqué de susceptibilité au sel. Aussi, l'IGF-1 stimule le transport rénal de Na+ in vivo. De plus, 35 % des patients atteints d'acromégalie (surproduction d'hormone de croissance et d'IGF-1) sont hypertensifs (prévalence plus élevée que la population normale), et des analyses génétiques suggèrent un lien entre le locus du gène de l'IGF-1 et la pression sanguine. RÉSUMÉ GRAND PUBLIC Nos ancêtres se sont génétiquement adaptés pendant des centaines de millénaires à un environnement pauvre en sel (chlorure de sodium) dans la savane équatoriale, où ils consommaient moins de 0,1 gramme de sel par jour. On a commencé à ajouter du sel aux aliments avec l'apparition de l'agriculture (il y a 5000 à 10000 années), et aujourd'hui une diète omnivore, qui inclut des plats préparés, contient plusieurs fois la quantité de sodium nécessaire pour notre fonction physiologique normale (environ 10 grammes par jour). Le corps garde sa concentration constante dans le sang en s'adaptant à une consommation très variable de sel. Pour ceci, il module son excrétion soit directement, soit en sécrétant des hormones régulatrices. Le rein joue un rôle principal dans cette régulation puisque l'excrétion urinaire de sel change selon la diète et peut aller d'une quantité dérisoire à plus de 36 grammes par jour. L'attention qu'on prête au sel est liée à sa relation avec l'hypertension essentielle. Ainsi, le contrôle rénal de l'excrétion de sodium et d'eau est le principal mécanisme dans la régulation de la pression sanguine, et une ingestion excessive de sel pourrait être l'un des facteurs-clé déclenchant l'apparition d'un phénotype hypertensif. L'hormone aldosterone diminue l'excrétion de sodium par le rein en modulant l'expression de gènes qui pourraient être impliqués dans la sensibilité au sel. Dans une lignée cellulaire de rein l'expression du gène TSC22D3, qui se traduit en la protéine Glucocorticoid Induced Leucine Zipper (GILZ), est fortement induite par l'aldosterone. Ceci suggère que GILZ est un médiateur potentiel de l'effet de l'aldosterone, et pourrait être impliqué dans la sensibilité au sel. Pour analyser la fonction de GILZ dans le rein plusieurs approches ont été utilisées. Par exemple, une souris dans laquelle GILZ est spécifiquement inactivé dans le rein est en train d'être produite et permettra l'étude du rôle de GILZ dans l'organisme. De plus, on a montré que GILZ, en conditions basales, n'a pas d'effet direct sur la protéine transportant le sodium à travers la membrane des cellules, le canal sodique épithélial ENaC. On a aussi essayé de trouver des protéines qui interagissent directement avec GILZ utilisant une technique appelée du « double-hybride dans la levure », mais aucun candidat n'a émergé. Des études ont montré que, à de hautes concentrations, l'insuline peut aussi diminuer l'excrétion de sodium. A ces concentrations, elle peut activer son récepteur spécifique, mais aussi le récepteur d'une autre hormone, l'Insulin-Like Growth Factor 1 (IGF-1). En plus, l'infusion d'IGF-1 augmente la rétention rénale de sodium et d'eau, et des mutations du gène codant pour l'IGF-1 sont liées aux différents niveaux de pression sanguine. On a utilisé une nouvelle lignée cellulaire de rein développée dans notre laboratoire, appelée mCCDc11, pour analyser l'importance relative des deux hormones dans l'induction du transport de sodium. On a montré que les deux hormones induisent une augmentation significative du transport de sodium par l'activation de récepteurs à l'IGF-1 et non du récepteur à l'insuline. On a montré qu'à l'intérieur de la cellule leur activation induit une augmentation du transport sodique par le biais du canal ENaC en modifiant la quantité de phosphates fixés sur la protéine Serumand Glucocorticoid-induced Kinase 1 (Sgk1). On a finalement montré que l'IGF-1 et l'aldosterone ont un effet additif sur le transport de sodium en agissant toutes les deux sur Sgk1, qui intègre leurs effets dans le contrôle du transport de sodium dans le rein.

Molecular features of hepatosplenic T-cell lymphoma unravels potential novel therapeutic targets.

The pathogenesis of hepatosplenic T-cell lymphoma (HSTL), a rare entity mostly derived from γδ T cells and usually with a fatal outcome, remains largely unknown. In this study, HSTL samples (7γδ and 2αβ) and the DERL2 HSTL cell line were subjected to combined gene-expression profiling and array-based comparative genomic hybridization. Compared with other T-cell lymphomas, HSTL had a distinct molecular signature irrespective of TCR cell lineage. Compared with peripheral T-cell lymphoma, not otherwise specified and normal γδ T cells, HSTL overexpressed genes encoding NK-cell-associated molecules, oncogenes (FOS and VAV3), the sphingosine-1-phosphatase receptor 5 involved in cell trafficking, and the tyrosine kinase SYK, whereas the tumor-suppressor gene AIM1 (absent in melanoma 1) was among the most down-expressed. We found highly methylated CpG islands of AIM1 in DERL2 cells, and decitabine treatment induced a significant increase in AIM1 transcripts. Syk was present in HSTL cells and DERL2 cells contained phosphorylated Syk and were sensitive to a Syk inhibitor in vitro. Genomic profiles confirmed recurrent isochromosome 7q (n = 6/9) without alterations at the SYK and AIM1 loci. Our results identify a distinct molecular signature for HSTL and highlight oncogenic pathways that offer rationale for exploring new therapeutic options such as Syk inhibitors and demethylating agents.

MAP2 Isoforms in Developing Cat Cerebral Cortex and Corpus Callosum.

The microtubule-associated protein MAP2 was studied in the developing cat visual cortex and corpus callosum. Biochemically, no MAP2a was detectable in either structure during the first postnatal month; adult cortex revealed small amounts of MAP2a. MAP2b was abundant in cortical tissue during the first postnatal month and decreased in concentration towards adulthood; it was barely detectable in corpus callosum at all ages. MAP2c was present in cortex and corpus callosum at birth; in cortex it consisted of three proteins of similar molecular weights between 65 and 70 kD. The two larger, phosphorylated forms disappeared after postnatal day 28, the smaller form after day 39. In corpus callosum, MAP2c changed from a phosphorylated to an unphosphorylated variant during the first postnatal month and then disappeared. Immunocytochemical experiments revealed MAP2 in cell bodies and dendrites of neurons in all cortical layers, from birth onwards. In corpus callosum, in the first month after birth, a little MAP2, possibly MAP2c, was detectable in axons. The present data indicate that MAP2 isoforms differ in their cellular distribution, temporal appearance and structural association, and that their composition undergoes profound changes during the period of axonal stabilization and dendritic maturation.

The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) β/δ agonist GW501516 inhibits IL-6-induced signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) activation and insulin resistance in human liver cells.

AIM/HYPOTHESIS: IL-6 induces insulin resistance by activating signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) and upregulating the transcription of its target gene SOCS3. Here we examined whether the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)β/δ agonist GW501516 prevented activation of the IL-6-STAT3-suppressor of cytokine signalling 3 (SOCS3) pathway and insulin resistance in human hepatic HepG2 cells. METHODS: Studies were conducted with human HepG2 cells and livers from mice null for Pparβ/δ (also known as Ppard) and wild-type mice. RESULTS: GW501516 prevented IL-6-dependent reduction in insulin-stimulated v-akt murine thymoma viral oncogene homologue 1 (AKT) phosphorylation and in IRS-1 and IRS-2 protein levels. In addition, treatment with this drug abolished IL-6-induced STAT3 phosphorylation of Tyr⁷⁰⁵ and Ser⁷²⁷ and prevented the increase in SOCS3 caused by this cytokine. Moreover, GW501516 prevented IL-6-dependent induction of extracellular-related kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2), a serine-threonine protein kinase involved in serine STAT3 phosphorylation; the livers of Pparβ/δ-null mice showed increased Tyr⁷⁰⁵- and Ser⁷²⁷-STAT3 as well as phospho-ERK1/2 levels. Furthermore, drug treatment prevented the IL-6-dependent reduction in phosphorylated AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), a kinase reported to inhibit STAT3 phosphorylation on Tyr⁷⁰⁵. In agreement with the recovery in phospho-AMPK levels observed following GW501516 treatment, this drug increased the AMP/ATP ratio and decreased the ATP/ADP ratio. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: Overall, our findings show that the PPARβ/δ activator GW501516 prevents IL-6-induced STAT3 activation by inhibiting ERK1/2 phosphorylation and preventing the reduction in phospho-AMPK levels. These effects of GW501516 may contribute to the prevention of cytokine-induced insulin resistance in hepatic cells.

ERK1/2 controls Na,K-ATPase activity and transepithelial sodium transport in the principal cell of the cortical collecting duct of the mouse kidney.

The collecting duct of normal kidney exhibits significant activity of the MEK1/2-ERK1/2 pathway as shown in vivo by immunostaining of phosphorylated active ERK1/2 (pERK1/2). The MEK1/2-ERK1/2 pathway controls many different ion transports both in proximal and distal nephron, raising the question of whether this pathway is involved in the basal and/or hormone-dependent transepithelial sodium reabsorption in the principal cell of the cortical collecting duct (CCD), a process mediated by the apical epithelial sodium channel and the basolateral sodium pump (Na,K-ATPase). To answer this question we used ex vivo microdissected CCDs from normal mouse kidney or in vitro cultured mpkCCDcl4 principal cells. Significant basal levels of pERK1/2 were observed ex vivo and in vitro. Aldosterone and vasopressin, known to up-regulate sodium reabsorption in CCDs, did not change ERK1/2 activity either ex vivo or in vitro. Basal and aldosterone- or vasopressin-stimulated sodium transport was down-regulated by the MEK1/2 inhibitor PD98059, in parallel with a decrease in pERK1/2 in vitro. The activity of Na,K-ATPase but not that of epithelial sodium channel was inhibited by MEK1/2 inhibitors in both unstimulated and aldosterone- or vasopressin-stimulated CCDs in vitro. Cell surface biotinylation showed that intrinsic activity rather than cell surface expression of Na,K-ATPase was controlled by pERK1/2. PD98059 also significantly inhibited the activity of Na,K-ATPase ex vivo. Our data demonstrate that the ERK1/2 pathway controls Na,K-ATPase activity and transepithelial sodium transport in the principal cell and indicate that basal constitutive activity of the ERK1/2 pathway is a critical component of this control.

Feasibility of direct mapping of cerebral fluorodeoxy-D-glucose metabolism in situ at subcellular resolution using soft X-ray fluorescence.

Glucose metabolism is difficult to image with cellular resolution in mammalian brain tissue, particularly with (18) fluorodeoxy-D-glucose (FDG) positron emission tomography (PET). To this end, we explored the potential of synchrotron-based low-energy X-ray fluorescence (LEXRF) to image the stable isotope of fluorine (F) in phosphorylated FDG (DG-6P) at 1 μm(2) spatial resolution in 3-μm-thick brain slices. The excitation-dependent fluorescence F signal at 676 eV varied linearly with FDG concentration between 0.5 and 10 mM, whereas the endogenous background F signal was undetectable in brain. To validate LEXRF mapping of fluorine, FDG was administered in vitro and in vivo, and the fluorine LEXRF signal from intracellular trapped FDG-6P over selected brain areas rich in radial glia was spectrally quantitated at 1 μm(2) resolution. The subsequent generation of spatial LEXRF maps of F reproduced the expected localization and gradients of glucose metabolism in retinal Müller glia. In addition, FDG uptake was localized to periventricular hypothalamic tanycytes, whose morphological features were imaged simultaneously by X-ray absorption. We conclude that the high specificity of photon emission from F and its spatial mapping at ≤1 μm resolution demonstrates the ability to identify glucose uptake at subcellular resolution and holds remarkable potential for imaging glucose metabolism in biological tissue. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Developmental changes in the heavy subunit of neurofilaments in the corpus callosum of the cat.

In the corpus callosum of the cat, the heavy subunit of neurofilaments (NFH) can be demonstrated with the monoclonal antibody NE14, as early as P11, not at P3, and only in a few axons. At P18-19 and more markedly at P29, many more callosal axons have become positive to NE14 and this is similar to what is found in the adult. In contrast, callosal axons become positive to the neurofilament antibody SMI-32 only between P29 and P39 and remain positive in the adult. Treatment with alkaline phosphatase prevents axonal staining with NE14, but results in SMI-32 staining of a few callosal axons as early as P11, but not at P3. Between P11 and P19 the number of axons stained with SMI-32 after alkaline phosphatase treatment increases, in parallel with that of axons stained with NE14. Thus NE14 appears to recognize a phosphorylated form of NFH, while SMI-32 appears to recognize an epitope of NFH which is either masked by phosphate or inaccessible until between P29 and P39, unless the tissue is treated with alkaline phosphatase. These two forms of NFH appear towards the end of the period of massive developmental elimination of callosal axons. They are also synchronous with changes in the spacing of neurofilaments quantified in a separate ultrastructural study. These cytoskeletal changes may terminate the juvenile-labile state of callosal axons and allow further axial growth of the axon.

mTORC1 Directly Phosphorylates and Regulates Human MAF1.

mTORC1 is a central regulator of growth in response to nutrient availability, but few direct targets have been identified. RNA polymerase (pol) III produces a number of essential RNA molecules involved in protein synthesis, RNA maturation, and other processes. Its activity is highly regulated, and deregulation can lead to cell transformation. The human phosphoprotein MAF1 becomes dephosphorylated and represses pol III transcription after various stresses, but neither the significance of the phosphorylations nor the kinase involved is known. We find that human MAF1 is absolutely required for pol III repression in response to serum starvation or TORC1 inhibition by rapamycin or Torin1. The protein is phosphorylated mainly on residues S60, S68, and S75, and this inhibits its pol III repression function. The responsible kinase is mTORC1, which phosphorylates MAF1 directly. Our results describe molecular mechanisms by which mTORC1 controls human MAF1, a key repressor of RNA polymerase III transcription, and add a new branch to the signal transduction cascade immediately downstream of TORC1.

Id Gene regulation and function in the prosensory domains of the chicken inner ear: a link between Bmp Signaling and Atoh1

Bone morphogenetic proteins (Bmps) regulate the expression of the proneural gene Atoh1 and the generation of hair cells in the developing inner ear. The present work explored the role of Inhibitor of Differentiation genes (Id1-3) in this process. The results show that Id genes are expressed in the prosensory domains of the otic vesicle, along with Bmp4 and Bmp7. Those domains exhibit high levels of the phosphorylated form of Bmp-responding R-Smads (P-Smad1,5,8), and of Bmp-dependent Smad transcriptional activity as shown by the BRE-tk-EGFP reporter. Increased Bmp signaling induces the expression of Id1-3 along with the inhibition of Atoh1. Conversely, the Bmp antagonist Noggin or the Bmp-receptor inhibitor Dorsomorphin elicit opposite effects, indicating that Bmp signaling is necessary for Id expression and Atoh1 regulation in the otocyst. The forced expression of Id3 is sufficient to reduce Atoh1 expression and to prevent the expression of hair cell differentiation markers. Together, these results suggest that Ids are part of the machinery that mediates the regulation of hair cell differentiation exerted by Bmps. In agreement with that, during hair cell differentiation Bmp4 expression, P-Smad1,5,8 levels and Id expression are downregulated from hair cells. However, Ids are also downregulated from the supporting cells which contrarily to hair cells exhibit high levels of Bmp4 expression, P-Smad1,5,8, and BRE-tk-EGFP activity, suggesting that in these cells Ids escape from Bmp/Smad signaling. The differential regulation of Ids in time and space may underlie the multiple functions of Bmp signaling during sensory organ development.

Doublecortin cells and neurodegenerative disease

Introduction : Doublecortin (DCX) is a microtubule associated protein expressed by migrating neural precursors. DCX is also expressed in approximately 4% of all cortical cells in adult normal primate brain. DCX expression is also enhanced locally in response to an acute insult made to the brain. This is thought to play a role in plasticity or neural repair. That being said, it would be interesting to know how the expression of DCX is modified in a more chronic insult, like in neurodegeneration such as in Parkinson's Disease (PD) and Alzheimer's Disease (AD). The aim of my study is to study the expression of DCX cells in the cortex of patients having a neurodegenerative disease, compared to control patients. Method: DCX cells quantification on 9 DCX‐stained 5 μm thick formalin fixed paraffin embedded brain sections: 3 Alzheimer's disease patients, 3 Parkinson's disease patients and 3 control patients. Each patient had several sections that we could stain with different stainings (GALLYA, TAU, DCX). By using a computerized image analysis system (Explora Nova, La Rochelle, France), cortical columns were selected on areas on the cortex with a lot of degeneration subjectively observed on GALLYA stained sections and on TAU stained sections. Then total number of cells was counted on TAU sections, where all nuclei were colored in blue. Then the DCX cells were counted on the corresponding DCX sections. These values were standardized to a reference surface area. The ratio of DCX cells over total cells was then calculated. Results : There is a difference of DCX cell expression between Alzheimer's Disease patients and control patients. The percentage of dcx cells in the cortex of an Alzheimer's patient is around 12.54% ± 2.17%, where as in the cortex of control patients, it is around 5.47% ± 0.83%. On the other hand, there is no significant difference in the ratio of DCX cells over total cells between parkinson's patients and control patients, both having around 5% of DCX cells. Discussion: There is a dramatic increase of DCX expression in AD (12.5%) compared to PD and controls (5.5%). The increase in DCX ratio in AD may have two potential causes: 1.The increased ratio is due to DCX cells being more resistant to degeneration compared to surrounding cells which are degenerating due to AD, leading to the cortical atrophy observed in AD patients. So the decrease of total cells without any change in the number of DCX cells makes the ratio bigger in AD compared to the controls. 2.The increased ratio is due to an actual increase in DCX cells. This means that there is some neural repair to compensate the degenerative process, just like the repair process observed in acute lesions to the brain. This second idea can be integrated in the broader point of view of neuroinflammation. The progression of the disease would trigger neuroinflammation and the process following the primary inflammatory response which is neural repair. So our study can show that the increase in DCX cells is an attempt to repair the degenerated neurons, in the context of neuroinflammation triggered by the physiopathological progression of the disease.

Long-term changes in synaptic transmission of the lateral amygdala induced by strong "in vitro" activation

Résumé : L'amygdale latérale (AL) joue un .rôle essentiel dans la plasticité synaptique à la base du conditionnement de la peur. Malgré le faite que la majorité des cellules de l'AL reçoivent les afférentes nécessaires, une potentialisation dans seulement une partie d'entre elles est obligatoire afin que l'apprentissage de la peur ait lieu. Il a été montré que ces cellules expriment la forme active de CREB, et celui-ci a été associé aux cellules dites de type 'nonaccomrnodating' (nAC). Très récemment, une étude a impliqué les circuits récurrents de l'AL dans le conditionnement de la peur. Un lien entre ces deux observations n'a toutefois jamais été établi. t Nous avons utilisé un protocole in vitro de forte activation de l'AL, résultant dans l'induction de 'bursts' provenant de l'hippocampe et se propageant jusqu'à l'AL. Dans l'AL ces 'bursts' atteignent toutes les cellules et se propagent à travers plusieurs chemins. Utilisant ce protocole, nous avons, pour la première fois pu associer dans l'AL, des cellules connectées de manière récurrente avec des cellules de type nAC. Aussi bien dans ces dernières que dans les cellules de type 'accommodating' (AC), une diminution dans la transmission inhibitrice, à la fois exprimée de manière pré synaptique mais également indépendant de la synthèse de protéine a pu être observé. Au contraire, une potentialisation induite et exprimée au niveau pré synaptique ainsi que dépendante de la synthèse de protéine a pu être trouvé uniquement dans les cellules de type nAC. De plus, une hyperexcitabilité, dépendante des récepteurs NMDA a pu être observé, avec une sélection préférentielle des cellules du type nAC dans la génération de bursts. Nous avons également pu démontrer que la transformation d'un certain nombre de cellules de type AC en cellules dites nAC accompagnait cette augmentation générale de l'excitabilité de l'AL. Du faite da la grande quantité d'indices suggérant une connexion entre le système noradrénergique et les états de peur/d'anxiété, les effets d'une forte activation de l'AL sur ce dernier ont été investigués et ont révélés une perte de sa capacité de modulation du 'spiking pattern'. Finalement, des changements au niveau de l'expression d'un certain nombre de gènes, incluant celui codant pour le BDNF, a pu être trouvé à la suite d'une forte activation de l'AL. En raison du lien récemment décrit entre l'expression de la forme active de CREB et des cellules de type nAC ainsi que celui de l'implication des cellules de l'AL connectés de manière récurrente dans l'apprentissage de la peur, nos résultats nous permettent de suggérer un modèle expliquant comment la potentialisation des connections récurrentes entre cellules de type nAC pourrait être à la base de leur recrutement sélectif pendant le conditionnement de la peur. De plus, ils peuvent offrir des indices par rapport aux mécanismes à travers lesquels une sous population de neurones peut être réactivée par une stimulation externe précédemment inefficace, et induire ainsi un signal suffisamment fort pour qu'il soit transmit aux structures efférentes de l'AL. Abstract : The lateral nucleus of the amygdala (LA) is critically involved in the plasticity underlying fear-conditioned learning (Sah et al., 2008). Even though the majority of cells in the LA receive the necessary sensory inputs, potentiation in only a subset is required for fear learning to occur (Repa et al., 2001; Rumpel et al., 2005). These cells express active CREB (CAMP-responsive element-binding protein) (Han et al., 200, and this was related to the non-accommodating (nAC) spiking phenotype (Viosca et al., 2009; Zhou et al., 2009). In addition, a very recent study implicated recurrently connected cells of the LA in fear conditioned learning (Johnson et al., 2008). A link between the two observations has however never been made. In rats, we used an in vitro protocol of strong activation of the LA, resulting in bursting activity, which spread from the hippocampus to the LA. Within the LA, this activity reached all cells and spread via a multitude of pathways. Using this model, we were able to link, for the first time, recurrently connected cells in the LA with cells of the nAC phenotype. While we found a presynaptically expressed, protein synthesis independent decrease in inhibitory synaptic transmission in both nAC and accommodating (AC) cells, only nAC cells underwent a presynaptically induced and expressed, protein synthesis dependent potentiation. Moreover we observed an NMDA dependent hyperexcitability of the LA, with a preferential selection of nAC cells into burst generation. The transformation of a subset of AC cells into nAC cells accompanied this general increase in LA excitability. Given the considerable evidence suggesting a relationship between the central noradrenergic (NA) system and fear/anxiety states (Itoi, 2008), the effects of strong activation of the LA on the noradrenergic system were investigated, which revealed a loss of its modulatory actions on cell spiking patterns. Finally, we found changes in the expression levels of a number of genes; among which the one coding for $DNF, to be induced by strong activation of the LA. In view of the recently described link between nAC cells and expression of pCREB (phosphorylated cAMP-responsive element-binding protein) as well as the involvement of recurrently connected cells of the LA in fear-conditioned learning, our findings may provide a model of how potentiation of recurrent connections between nAC neurons underlies their recruitment into the fear memory trace. Additionally, they may offer clues as to the mechanisms through which a selected subset of neurons can be reactivated by smaller, previously ineffective external stimulations to respond with a sufficiently strong signal, which can be transmitted to downstream targets of the LA.

Identification of in vitro phosphorylation sites in the growth cone protein SCG10. Effect Of phosphorylation site mutants on microtubule-destabilizing activity.

SCG10 is a neuron-specific, membrane-associated protein that is highly concentrated in growth cones of developing neurons. Previous studies have suggested that it is a regulator of microtubule dynamics and that it may influence microtubule polymerization in growth cones. Here, we demonstrate that in vivo, SCG10 exists in both phosphorylated and unphosphorylated forms. By two-dimensional gel electrophoresis, two phosphoisoforms were detected in neonatal rat brain. Using in vitro phosphorylated recombinant protein, four phosphorylation sites were identified in the SCG10 sequence. Ser-50 and Ser-97 were the target sites for protein kinase A, Ser-62 and Ser-73 for mitogen-activated protein kinase and Ser-73 for cyclin-dependent kinase. We also show that overexpression of SCG10 induces a disruption of the microtubule network in COS-7 cells. By expressing different phosphorylation site mutants, we have dissected the roles of the individual phosphorylation sites in regulating its microtubule-destabilizing activity. We show that nonphosphorylatable mutants have increased activity, whereas mutants in which phosphorylation is mimicked by serine-to-aspartate substitutions have decreased activity. These data suggest that the microtubule-destabilizing activity of SCG10 is regulated by phosphorylation, and that SCG10 may link signal transduction of growth or guidance cues involving serine/threonine protein kinases to alterations of microtubule dynamics in the growth cone.

Molecular characterization of the Carma1-related protein card9

ABSTRACT : Fungal infections have become a major source of diseases in immuncompromised patients, but are quite benign in healthy individuals. As fungi are eukaryotes, and share many biological processes with humans, many antifungal drugs can cause toxicity in the patients. Therefore, the characterization of signaling pathways specific to the anti-fungal immune response is relevant for the better understanding of the disease and the development of new therapeutic approaches. Dectin-1 is the major mammalian pattern recognition receptor for the fungal component zymosan. Dectin-1 is an innate non-Toll-like receptor containing immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motifs (ITAMs). Card9, Bc110 and Maltl are proteins that have been shown to play a key role in the Dectin-l-induced signaliñg pathway by controlling Dectin-l-mediated cell activation, cytokine production and innate anti-fungal immunity in mice. Here we investigate the role of the Card9-Bc110-Maltl complex in humans using the monocytic cell line THP-1. We show that Card9 interacts with Bc110 through a CARD-CARD interaction and that interaction of Card9 with Bc110 is required for NF-xB activation. We further demonstrate that Card9 is phosphorylated in its C-terminal part on serine residues. The phosphorylation status of Card9 can influence its ability to active NF-xB, since mutation of the phosphorylation sites increases its ability to activate NF-xB. We find that Card9 is expressed in myeloid derived cells, such as the human monocytic cell lines THP1 and U937, and in human monocyte-enriched PBLs and monocyte-derived DCs. Our findings demonstrate that Card9 is implicated in anti-fungal responses, since silencing of Card9 as well as of Bc110 and Maltl diminishes the capacity of THP1 cells to produce TNF-a in response to zymosan. Interestingly, activation of the NF-xB and MAPK pathway remained normal and levels of TNF-a mRNA produced were also not affected in THP 1 cells silenced for the expression of Card9, Bc110 or Malt1. Using a Malt1 inhibitor, we provide evidence that the proteolytic activity of Malt1 is needed for zymosan-induced TNF-a production in THP 1 cells and bone marrow-derived macrophages of mice, but further experiments are required to confirm these findings and identify the substrate(s) of Malt1. In conclusion, our results reveal an important role for Card9 in the innate immune response of human macrophages to fungi. RÉSUMÉ : Les infections fongiques sont une source majeure de maladie chez les patients immunodéprimés, alors qu'elles sont plutôt bénignes chez les individus sains. Comme les champignons sont des eucaryotes et partagent beaucoup de processus biologiques avec les humains, les médicaments antifongiques peuvent être source de toxicité chez les patients. Il est donc important de mieux caractériser les voies de signalisation intracellulaire des réponses anti-fongiques pour pouvoir développer de nouvelles approches thérapeutiques. La protéine Dectin-1 est le récepteur principal du composé fongique zymosan. Les protéines Card9, Bc110 et Maltl ont été décrites comme jouant un rôle primordial dans les signaux d'activation induits par Dectin-l, en contrôlant l'activité cellulaire, la production de cytokines et la défense anti-fongique dans les souris. Dans cette étude, nous investiguons le rôle du complexe Card9-Bc110-Maltl dans la lignée monocytaire humaine THP1. Nous montrons que Card9 interagit avec Bc110 par une interaction CARD-CARD et que cette interaction est requise pour activer le facteur de transcription NF-xB. Nous observons que Card9 est phosphorylé dans sa partie C-terminale sur des résidus serine et que l'état de phosphorylation de Card9 influence sa capacité à activer NF-xB. En effet, sa capacité à activer NF-xB est augmentée, après mutation des sites de phosphorylation. La génération d'un anticorps spécifique dirigé contre Card9 nous a permis de démontrer que Card9 est exprimé dans des cellules myéloïdes comme les lignées cellulaires monocytiques THP-1 et U-937, ainsi que dans les cellules dendritiques humaines. Nos résultats démontrent que Card9 est impliqué dans la réponse immunitaire antifongique puisque la réduction de l'expression de Card9 ainsi que de Bc110 et de Malt1 diminue la capacité des THP-1 à produire du TNF-a en réponse au zymosan. Par contre, les voies de signalisation NF-xB et MAPK ainsi que les niveaux de mRNA de TNF-a produits en réponse au zymosan ne sont pas affectés dans ces cellules. En utilisant un inhibiteur de Malt1, nous montrons que l'activité protéolytique de Malt1 est nécessaire pour la production de TNF-a induite par le zymosan dans les cellules THP-1 ainsi que dans les macrophages de souris, mais d'autres expériences seront nécessaires pour confirmer cette observation et identifier le(s) substrat(s) de Malt1 responsables de cet effet. En conclusion, nos résultats révèlent un rôle important de la protéine Card9 dans la réponse immunitaire innée antifongique dans les macrophages humains.