Fast and slow climate responses to CO2 and solar forcing: A linear multivariate regression model characterizing transient climate change

Climate change in response to a change in external forcing can be understood in terms of fast response to the imposed forcing and slow feedback associated with surface temperature change. Previous studies have investigated the characteristics of fast response and slow feedback for different forcing agents. Here we examine to what extent that fast response and slow feedback derived from time-mean results of climate model simulations can be used to infer total climate change. To achieve this goal, we develop a multivariate regression model of climate change, in which the change in a climate variable is represented by a linear combination of its sensitivity to CO2 forcing, solar forcing, and change in global mean surface temperature. We derive the parameters of the regression model using time-mean results from a set of HadCM3L climate model step-forcing simulations, and then use the regression model to emulate HadCM3L-simulated transient climate change. Our results show that the regression model emulates well HadCM3L-simulated temporal evolution and spatial distribution of climate change, including surface temperature, precipitation, runoff, soil moisture, cloudiness, and radiative fluxes under transient CO2 and/or solar forcing scenarios. Our findings suggest that temporal and spatial patterns of total change for the climate variables considered here can be represented well by the sum of fast response and slow feedback. Furthermore, by using a simple 1-D heat-diffusion climate model, we show that the temporal and spatial characteristics of climate change under transient forcing scenarios can be emulated well using information from step-forcing simulations alone.

CuIn1-xAlxSe2 Thin Films Grown by Co-Sputtering and Modified Selenization: Application in Flexible Solar Cells

Thin films of CuIn1-xAlxSe2 (CIAS) were grown on the flexible 10 micrometer thin stainless steel substrates, by dc co-sputtering from the elemental cathodes, followed by annealing with modified selenization. CuInAl alloyed precursor films were selenized both by noble gas assisted Se vapor transport in a tubular furnace and vacuum evaporation of Se in an evaporation chamber. CIAS thin films were optimized for better adhesion. X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and UV-visible absorption spectroscopy were used to characterize the selenized films. The composition of CIAS films was varied by substituting In with Al in CuInSe2 (CIS) from 0 <= x <= 0.65 (x = Al/Al+In). Lattice parameters, average crystallite sizes, and compact density of the films, decreased when compared to CIS and (112) peak shifted to higher Bragg's angle, upon Al incorporation. The dislocation density and strain were found to increase with Al doping. Solar cells with SS/Mo/CIAS/CdS/iZnO: AZnO/Al configuration were fabricated and were tested for current-voltage characteristics for various `x' values, under Air Mass 1.5 Global one sun illumination. The best CIAS solar cell showed the efficiency of 6.8%, with x = 0.13, Eg = 1.17 eV, fill factor 45.04, and short circuit current density J(sc) 30 mA/cm(2).

Anthropogenic aerosol fraction over the Indian region: model simulations versus multi-satellite data analysis

Anthropogenic aerosols play a crucial role in our environment, climate, and health. Assessment of spatial and temporal variation in anthropogenic aerosols is essential to determine their impact. Aerosols are of natural and anthropogenic origin and together constitute a composite aerosol system. Information about either component needs elimination of the other from the composite aerosol system. In the present work we estimated the anthropogenic aerosol fraction (AF) over the Indian region following two different approaches and inter-compared the estimates. We espouse multi-satellite data analysis and model simulations (using the CHIMERE Chemical transport model) to derive natural aerosol distribution, which was subsequently used to estimate AF over the Indian subcontinent. These two approaches are significantly different from each other. Natural aerosol satellite-derived information was extracted in terms of optical depth while model simulations yielded mass concentration. Anthropogenic aerosol fraction distribution was studied over two periods in 2008: premonsoon (March-May) and winter (November-February) in regard to the known distinct seasonality in aerosol loading and type over the Indian region. Although both techniques have derived the same property, considerable differences were noted in temporal and spatial distribution. Satellite retrieval of AF showed maximum values during the pre-monsoon and summer months while lowest values were observed in winter. On the other hand, model simulations showed the highest concentration of AF in winter and the lowest during pre-monsoon and summer months. Both techniques provided an annual average AF of comparable magnitude (similar to 0.43 +/- 0.06 from the satellite and similar to 0.48 +/- 0.19 from the model). For winter months the model-estimated AF was similar to 0.62 +/- 0.09, significantly higher than that (0.39 +/- 0.05) estimated from the satellite, while during pre-monsoon months satellite-estimated AF was similar to 0.46 +/- 0.06 and the model simulation estimation similar to 0.53 +/- 0.14. Preliminary results from this work indicate that model-simulated results are nearer to the actual variation as compared to satellite estimation in view of general seasonal variation in aerosol concentrations.

CuIn1-xAlxSe2 Thin Films Grown by Co-Sputtering and Modified Selenization: Application in Flexible Solar Cells

Thin films of CuIn1-xAlxSe2 (CIAS) were grown on the flexible 10 micrometer thin stainless steel substrates, by dc co-sputtering from the elemental cathodes, followed by annealing with modified selenization. CuInAl alloyed precursor films were selenized both by noble gas assisted Se vapor transport in a tubular furnace and vacuum evaporation of Se in an evaporation chamber. CIAS thin films were optimized for better adhesion. X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and UV-visible absorption spectroscopy were used to characterize the selenized films. The composition of CIAS films was varied by substituting In with Al in CuInSe2 (CIS) from 0 <= x <= 0.65 (x = Al/Al+In). Lattice parameters, average crystallite sizes, and compact density of the films, decreased when compared to CIS and (112) peak shifted to higher Bragg's angle, upon Al incorporation. The dislocation density and strain were found to increase with Al doping. Solar cells with SS/Mo/CIAS/CdS/iZnO: AZnO/Al configuration were fabricated and were tested for current-voltage characteristics for various `x' values, under Air Mass 1.5 Global one sun illumination. The best CIAS solar cell showed the efficiency of 6.8%, with x = 0.13, Eg = 1.17 eV, fill factor 45.04, and short circuit current density J(sc) 30 mA/cm(2).

Simulated long-term climate response to idealized solar geoengineering

Solar geoengineering has been proposed as a potential means to counteract anthropogenic climate change, yet it is unknown how such climate intervention might affect the Earth's climate on the millennial time scale. Here we use the HadCM3L model to conduct a 1000year sunshade geoengineering simulation in which solar irradiance is uniformly reduced by 4% to approximately offset global mean warming from an abrupt quadrupling of atmospheric CO2. During the 1000year period, modeled global climate, including temperature, hydrological cycle, and ocean circulation of the high-CO2 simulation departs substantially from that of the control preindustrial simulation, whereas the climate of the geoengineering simulation remains much closer to that of the preindustrial state with little drift. The results of our study do not support the hypothesis that nonlinearities in the climate system would cause substantial drift in the climate system if solar geoengineering was to be deployed on the timescale of a millennium.

Isotopes in cosmochemistry: recipe for a Solar System

Extreme isotopic variations among extraterrestrial materials provide great insights into the origin and evolution of the Solar System. In this tutorial review, we summarize how the measurement of isotope ratios can expand our knowledge of the processes that took place before and during the formation of our Solar System and its subsequent early evolution. The continuous improvement of mass spectrometers with high precision and increased spatial resolution, including secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS), thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS) and multi collector-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (MC-ICP-MS), along with the ever growing amounts of available extraterrestrial samples have significantly increased the temporal and spatial constraints on the sequence of events that took place since and before the formation of the first Solar System condensates (i.e., Ca-Al-rich inclusions). Grains sampling distinct stellar environments with a wide range of isotopic compositions were admixed to, but possibly not fully homogenized in, the Sun's parent molecular cloud or the nascent Solar System. Before, during and after accretion of the nebula, as well as the formation and subsequent evolution of planetesimals and planets, chemical and physical fractionation processes irrevocably changed the chemical and isotopic compositions of all Solar System bodies. Since the formation of the first Solar System minerals and rocks 4.568 Gyr ago, short-and long-lived radioactive decay and cosmic ray interaction also contributed to the modification of the isotopic framework of the Solar System, and permit to trace the formation and evolution of directly accessible and inferred planetary and stellar isotopic reservoirs.

COST AND PERFORMANCE TRADEOFFS OF ALTERNATIVE SOLAR-DRIVEN S-CO2 BRAYTON CYCLE CONFIGURATIONS

This paper evaluates cost and performance tradeoffs of alternative supercritical carbon dioxide (s-CO2) closed-loop Brayton cycle configurations with a concentrated solar heat source. Alternative s-CO2 power cycle configurations include simple, recompression, cascaded, and partial cooling cycles. Results show that the simple closed-loop Brayton cycle yielded the lowest power-block component costs while allowing variable temperature differentials across the s-CO2 heating source, depending on the level of recuperation. Lower temperature differentials led to higher sensible storage costs, but cycle configurations with lower temperature differentials (higher recuperation) yielded higher cycle efficiencies and lower solar collector and receiver costs. The cycles with higher efficiencies (simple recuperated, recompression, and partial cooling) yielded the lowest overall solar and power-block component costs for a prescribed power output.

COUPLED OPTICAL-THERMAL-FLUID MODELING OF A DIRECTLY HEATED TUBULAR SOLAR RECEIVER FOR SUPERCRITICAL CO2 BRAYTON CYCLE

Recent studies have evaluated closed-loop supercritical carbon dioxide (s-CO2) Brayton cycles to be a higher energy density system in comparison to conventional superheated steam Rankine systems. At turbine inlet conditions of 923K and 25 MPa, high thermal efficiency (similar to 50%) can be achieved. Achieving these high efficiencies will make concentrating solar power (CSP) technologies a competitive alternative to current power generation methods. To incorporate a s-CO2 Brayton power cycle in a solar power tower system, the development of a solar receiver capable of providing an outlet temperature of 923 K (at 25 MPa) is necessary. The s-CO2 will need to increase in temperature by similar to 200 K as it passes through the solar receiver to satisfy the temperature requirements of a s-CO2 Brayton cycle with recuperation and recompression. In this study, an optical-thermal-fluid model was developed to design and evaluate a tubular receiver that will receive a heat input similar to 2 MWth from a heliostat field. The ray-tracing tool SolTrace was used to obtain the heat-flux distribution on the surfaces of the receiver. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling using the Discrete Ordinates (DO) radiation model was used to predict the temperature distribution and the resulting receiver efficiency. The effect of flow parameters, receiver geometry and radiation absorption by s-CO2 were studied. The receiver surface temperatures were found to be within the safe operational limit while exhibiting a receiver efficiency of similar to 85%.

A quantum dot sensitized solar cell based on vertically aligned carbon nanotube templated ZnO arrays

We report on a quantum dot sensitized solar cell (QDSSC) based on ZnO nanorod coated vertically aligned carbon nanotubes (VACNTs). Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy shows that the electron lifetime for the device based on VACNT/ZnO/CdSe is longer than that for a device based on ZnO/CdSe, indicating that the charge recombination at the interface is reduced by the presence of the VACNTs. Due to the increased surface area and longer electron lifetime, a power conversion efficiency of 1.46% is achieved for the VACNT/ZnO/CdSe devices under an illumination of one Sun (AM 1.5G, 100 mW/cm2). © 2010 Elsevier B.V.

High-resolution TEM characterization of ZnO core-shell nanowires for dye-sensitized solar cells

Recently ZnO nanowire films have been used in very promising and inexpensive dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC). It was found that the performance of the devices can be enhanced by functionalising the nanowires with a thin metal oxide coating. This nm-scale shell is believed to tailor the electronic structure of the nanowire, and help the absorption of the dye. Core-shell ZnO nanowire structures are synthesised at low temperature (below 120°C) by consecutive hydrothermal growth steps. Different materials are investigated for the coating, including Mg, Al, Cs and Zr oxides. High resolution TEM is used to characterise the quality of both the nanowire core and the shell, and to monitor the thickness and the degree of crystallisation of the oxide coating. The interface between the nanowire core and the outer shell is investigated in order to understand the adhesion of the coating, and give valuable feedback for the synthesis process. Nanowire films are packaged into dye-sensitised solar cell prototypes; samples coated with ZrO2 and MgO show the largest enhancement in the photocurrent and open-circuit voltage and look very promising for further improvement. © 2010 IOP Publishing Ltd.

Gamma-Ray Attenuation Technique For Measuring Void Fraction In Horizontal Gas-Liquid Two-Phase Flow

The measurement of void fraction is of importance to the oil industry and chemical industry. In this article, the principle and mathematical method of determining the void fraction of horizontal gas-liquid flow by using a single-energy gamma-ray system is described. The gamma-ray source is the radioactive isotope of Am-241 with gamma-ray energy of 59.5 keV. The time-averaged value of the void fraction in a 50.0-mm i.d. transparent horizontal pipeline is measured under various combinations of the liquid flow and gas flow. It is found that increasing the gas flow rate at a fixed liquid flow rate would increase the void fraction. Test data are compared with the predictions of the correlations and a good agreement is found. The result shows that the designed gamma-ray system can be used for measuring the void fraction in a horizontal gas-liquid two-phase flow with high accuracy.

Determinación del índice de área foliar, radiación solar no interceptada por especies forestales y concentración de magnesio en hojas de café (Coffea arabica L.) en sistemas agroforestales, localizados en Masaya, Nicaragua

La presente investigación se realizó en sistemas agroforestales con Café Coffea arábiga L.)en el Municipio de Masatepe, Nicaragua, determinando el índice de área foliar, radiación solar no interceptada por especies forestales y concentración de magnesio en hojas de Café. Para determinar índice de área foliar se utilizó una metodología no destructiva y una destructiva; la medición no destructiva se basó en la técnica de fotografías hemisféricas para lo cual se utilizó una cámara Nikon Coolpix 4500 que permitió tomar fotografías de cuatro árboles de Samanea saman, Inga laurina, Simarouba glauca, Tabebuia rosea respectivamente. Porcada árbol se tomaron cuatro imágenes sobre lados opuestos del tronco (Norte, Sur, Este y Oeste), para el análisis de fotografías hemisféricas se empleó el software Gap Light Analyzer. Para contrastar la medición de índice de área foliar por método no destructivo (fotografías hemisféricas) se empleó un método destructivo basado en la recolección de 300 hojas, se tomó el peso húmedo del total de hojas de cada uno de los árboles en estudio. Del total de hojas de cada árbol se pesaron separadamente tres muestras; utilizando el planímetro LI-3000 se calculó en cada caso el área de la hoja. Una vez obtenida el área foliar de la hoja, las muestras se secaron en horno a 65° C, durante 72 h y promediadas para obtener biomasa del follaje. Dividiendo el área foliar de las muestras entre su peso seco se obtuvo el área foliar específica, posteriormente el promedio de área foliar específica de las muestras multiplicado por el peso seco total de hojas permitió calcular el área foliar del árbol. Finalmente, se obtuvo el índice de área foliar dividiendo área foliar entre el área de suelo asignada . La medición de la cantidad de radiación incidente sobre el follaje de las plantas de Café se realizó en la réplica II en CENECOOP en dos puntos de muestreo; el criterio de selección de los sitios se basó en la combinación de árboles ubicados diagonalmente y en la uniformidad de distancia entre las especies para la combinación T. rosea + S. glaucae I. laurina + S. saman. En esta réplica se realizaron análisis del contenido de magnesio en hojas de Café en las subparcelas 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 y 12 más dos muestras testigos en las subparcelas 13 y 14 a pleno sol. El índice de área foliar promedio para especies tropicales estimado por el método destructivo fue de 2,52 y por el método no destructivo fue de 0,85; debido a estas diferencias es necesario aplicar un factor de corrección o calibración al método no destructivo para validar ambos resultados. En la combinación I. laurina + S. saman se detectó un mayor paso de radiación solar al cafetal (29911,11lux) posiblemente debido a las características morfológicas del dosel. La concentración de magnesio más alta es de 2% la cual se encontró en las hojas de Café de la combinación T. rosea + S. glauca en nivel de insumo orgánico moderado.

Efecto del presecador solar tipo domo en el secado de granos de café orgánico (Coffea arabica L.) en fincas de pequeños productores de las cooperativas San Isidro R.L. Boaco y PROCOSER Nueva Segovia. Noviembre 2010-Febrero 2011

La obtención del producto final del rubro café conlleva una serie de procesos, entre ellos está el beneficiado (húmedo y seco). El beneficiado seco es un proceso para reducir la humedad los frutos del cafeto de su estado café pergamino mojado obtenido del beneficiado húmedo, este se realiza en patio exponiendo los granos húmedos durante varios días a los rayos directos del sol, sobre una superficie de cemento o madera. Exponiendo el café a los efectos negativos del ambiente, reduciendo la calidad, elevando los costos, mayor uso de mano de obra y corriendo riesgos constantes de contaminación y a castigos impuestos por la acopiadora en el pesaje por merma de humedad. Como una propuesta a estos riesgos se evaluó el efecto del presecador solar tipo domo en el presecado de granos de café orgánico (Coffea arabica L.), en fincas de pequeños productores de las cooperativas San Isidro R.L Boaco y PROCOSER Nueva Segovia. En el ciclo 2010-2011. Se realizó en dos fases: primera, correspondió a una investigación no experimental donde se utilizo una encuesta semi-estructurada para determinar las características de los productores (datos del productor, datos de la finca, área de café, altura de la finca, variedades de café presentes y actividades que realizan en el beneficiado húmedo). Calidad de corte y prueba de rendimiento de las diferentes localidades seleccionadas. En la segunda, se estableció un experimento unifactorial, al comparar la tecnología (pre secador tipo domo). Las variables a evaluadas fueron: área y altura de la finca, variedades de café, actividades del beneficiado húmedo, temperatura, humedad relativa, peso del grano y rendimientos. Los resultados obtenidos fueron que hubo diferencias en algunas actividades del proceso de beneficiado húmedo entre los productores de los departamentos. La pérdida de humedad en el grano de café fue mayor en el volumen de 11.36 kg/m2 en ambas localidades igualmente la pérdida del peso del grano, los menores costos variables y mayores beneficios netos se los obtuvo el tratamiento de 22.72 kg / m2 fuera del presecador tradicional en el departamento de Boaco mientras que en el departamento de Nueva Segovia fue el de 11.36 kg/m2 dentro del presecador solar tipo domo.