Epigenetic and transcriptional signatures of stable versus plastic differentiation of proinflammatory gd T cell subsets

Two distinct subsets of γδ T cells that produce interleukin 17 (IL-17) (CD27(-) γδ T cells) or interferon-γ (IFN-γ) (CD27(+) γδ T cells) develop in the mouse thymus, but the molecular determinants of their functional potential in the periphery remain unknown. Here we conducted a genome-wide characterization of the methylation patterns of histone H3, along with analysis of mRNA encoding transcription factors, to identify the regulatory networks of peripheral IFN-γ-producing or IL-17-producing γδ T cell subsets in vivo. We found that CD27(+) γδ T cells were committed to the expression of Ifng but not Il17, whereas CD27(-) γδ T cells displayed permissive chromatin configurations at loci encoding both cytokines and their regulatory transcription factors and differentiated into cells that produced both IL-17 and IFN-γ in a tumor microenvironment.

Mathematical model for HIV dynamics in HIV-specific helper cells

In this paper we study a delay mathematical model for the dynamics of HIV in HIV-specific CD4 + T helper cells. We modify the model presented by Roy and Wodarz in 2012, where the HIV dynamics is studied, considering a single CD4 + T cell population. Non-specific helper cells are included as alternative target cell population, to account for macrophages and dendritic cells. In this paper, we include two types of delay: (1) a latent period between the time target cells are contacted by the virus particles and the time the virions enter the cells and; (2) virus production period for new virions to be produced within and released from the infected cells. We compute the reproduction number of the model, R0, and the local stability of the disease free equilibrium and of the endemic equilibrium. We find that for values of R0<1, the model approaches asymptotically the disease free equilibrium. For values of R0>1, the model approximates asymptotically the endemic equilibrium. We observe numerically the phenomenon of backward bifurcation for values of R0⪅1. This statement will be proved in future work. We also vary the values of the latent period and the production period of infected cells and free virus. We conclude that increasing these values translates in a decrease of the reproduction number. Thus, a good strategy to control the HIV virus should focus on drugs to prolong the latent period and/or slow down the virus production. These results suggest that the model is mathematically and epidemiologically well-posed.

Effect of sialic acid loss on dendritic cell maturation

Sialic acids are key structural determinants and contribute to the functionality of a number of immune cell receptors. Previously, we demonstrated that differentiation of human dendritic cells (DCs) is accompanied by an increased expression of sialylated cell surface structures, putatively through the activity of the ST3Gal.I and ST6Gal.I sialyltransferases. Furthermore, DC endocytosis was reduced upon removal of the cell surface sialic acid residues by neuraminidase. In the present work, we evaluate the contribution of the sialic acid modifications in DC maturation. We demonstrate that neuraminidase-treated human DCs have increased expression of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) and costimulatory molecules, increased gene expression of specific cytokines and induce a higher proliferative response of T lymphocytes. Together, the data suggest that clearance of cell surface sialic acids contributes to the development of a T helper type 1 proinflammatory response. This postulate is supported by mouse models, where elevated MHC class II and increased maturation of specific DC subsets were observed in DCs harvested from ST3Gal.I(-/-) and ST6Gal.I(-/-) mice. Moreover, important qualitative differences, particularly in the extent of reduced endocytosis and in the peripheral distribution of DC subsets, existed between the ST3Gal.I(-/-) and ST6Gal.I(-/-) strains. Together, the data strongly suggest not only a role of cell surface sialic acid modifications in maturation and functionality of DCs, but also that the sialic acid linkages created by different sialyltransferases are functionally distinct. Consequently, with particular relevance to DC-based therapies, cell surface sialylation, mediated by individual sialyltransferases, can influence the immunogenicity of DCs upon antigen loading.

Sialyl Tn-Expressing Bladder Cancer Cells Induce a Tolerogenic Phenotype in Innate and Adaptive Immune Cells

Despite the wide acceptance that glycans are centrally implicated in immunity, exactly how they contribute to the tilt immune response remains poorly defined. In this study, we sought to evaluate the impact of the malignant phenotype-associated glycan, sialyl-Tn (STn) in the function of the key orchestrators of the immune response, the dendritic cells (DCs). In high grade bladder cancer tissue, the STn antigen is significantly overexpressed and correlated with the increased expression of ST6GALNAC1 sialyltransferase. Bladder cancer tissue presenting elevated expression of ST6GALNAC1 showed a correlation with increased expression of CD1a, a marker for bladder immature DCs and showed concomitant low levels of Th1-inducing cytokines IL-12 and TNF-α. In vitro, human DCs co-incubated with STn+ bladder cancer cells, had an immature phenotype (MHC-IIlow, CD80low and CD86low) and were unresponsive to further maturation stimuli. When contacting with STn+ cancer cells, DCs expressed significantly less IL-12 and TNF-α. Consistent with a tolerogenic DC profile, T cells that were primed by DCs pulsed with antigens derived from STn+ cancer cells were not activated and showed a FoxP3high IFN-γlow phenotype. Blockade of STn antigens and of STn+ glycoprotein, CD44 and MUC1, in STn+ cancer cells was able to lower the induction of tolerance and DCs become more mature. Overall, our data suggest that STn-expressing cancer cells impair DC maturation and endow DCs with a tolerogenic function, limiting their capacity to trigger protective anti-tumour T cell responses. STn antigens and, in particular, STn+ glycoproteins are potential targets for circumventing tumour-induced tolerogenic mechanisms.

Unravelling the role of alpha 2,6 sialic acid on mouse dentritic cells functions

RESUMO: As células dendríticas (CDs) são fundamentais na imunomodulação e iniciação de respostas imunes adaptativas, enquanto os ácidos siálicos (Sias) são potenciais imunomoduladores. Estas células expressam níveis elevados da sialiltransferase ST6Gal-1, que transfere Sias para a posição terminal de oligossacáridos. De facto, a maturação de CDs está associada a uma diminuição da sialilação na sua superfície celular. Apesar de ter função biológica desconhecida, a forma solúvel, extracelular de ST6Gal-1 aumenta em cancros e inflamação. Ainda assim, esta foi recentemente identificada como moduladora da hematopoiese. Considerando o importante papel das CDs na iniciação de respostas anticancerígenas, uma ligação entre a sialilação extrínseca induzida por ST6Gal-1 extracelular e o seu papel na modulação de CDs deve ser identificada. Neste trabalho hipotetizou-se que a sialilação α2,6 extrínseca de CDs diminui o seu perfil de maturação mediante ativação por lipopolissacarídeo (LPS). O objetivo principal foi sialilar extrinsecamente em α2,6 CDs da medula óssea de murganhos, avaliando os seus perfis de maturação e de libertação de citocinas, após estimulação com LPS (por Citometria de Fluxo e ELISA, respetivamente). Ao contrário da hipótese, o perfil celular não foi modulado, usando várias abordagens. Por outro lado, a consequência da falta de α2,6 Sias na maturação de CDs foi avaliada analisando: 1) CDs da medula óssea de murganhos tratadas com sialidase, 2) CDs da medula óssea e 3) CDs das vias aéreas, ambas de murganhos deficientes em ST6Gal-1, comparando com a estirpe selvagem. Estes resultados sugerem que a perta total de α2,6 Sias se relaciona com o aumento da expressão do complexo de histocompatibilidade principal de classe II. Apesar de controverso, é provável existirem mecanismos inerentes à ativação por LPS, reduzindo a eficácia de ST6Gal-1 extracelular. Por outro lado, a modificação no perfil de CDs de murganhos deficientes em ST6Gal-1 poderá relacionar-se com uma predisposição para um estado inflamatório severo. Com isto, o trabalho desenvolvido abriu futuras linhas de investigação, nomeadamente explorar outros fatores envolvidos na (de)sialilação α2,6 de CDs, podendo ter impacto em imunoterapia com uso de CDs.--------------------------ABSTRACT: Dendritic cells (DCs) are vital for immunomodulation and the initiation of adaptive immune responses, whereas sialic acids (Sias) are potential immunomodulators. These cells express high levels of sialyltransferase ST6Gal-1, responsible for transferring Sias to the terminal position of oligosaccharide chains. Indeed, DCs’ maturation is associated with decreased cell surface sialylation. Although its biological significance is unknown, the soluble, extracellular form of ST6Gal-1 increases in cancers and inflammation. However, extracellular ST6Gal-1 was recently identified as modulator of hematopoiesis. Considering that DCs play a crucial role in the initiation of a productive anti-cancer immune response, a link between extrinsic sialylation by the extracellular ST6Gal-1 on DC function needs to be investigated. We hypothesize that extrinsic α2,6 sialylation of DCs diminishes their maturation features upon lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation. The main goal was to extrinsically α2,6 sialylate mice bone marrow derived DCs (BMDCs) and to evaluate their maturation and cytokine profiles upon LPS stimulation (by Flow Cytometry and ELISA, respectively). Unlike the hypothesis, we observed that BMDCs’ profile is not modulated, even using several approaches. In contrast, the consequence of lacking cell surface α2,6 Sias in DC maturation was assessed by analysing: 1) sialidase treated BMDCs, 2) BMDCs from mice lacking ST6Gal-1 and 3) DCs from mice airways, comparing wild type with ST6Gal-1 knockout mice. These results suggest that overall lack in α2,6 Sias is related with increased expression of major histocompatibility class II (MHC-II). Although appearing to be controversial findings, other intracellular mechanisms might be occurring upon LPS-induced BMDC activation, probably reducing extracellular ST6Gal-1 effect. In opposite, the modification observed in DC profile of ST6Gal-1 knockout mice might be related to its predisposition to a more severe inflammatory status. With this, the developed work opened future lines of investigation, namely exploring other factors involved in α2,6 (de)sialylation of DC, which might have influence in immunotherapy using DCs.

The role of α2,3- and α2,6-sialylation

RESUMO: Os glicoconjugados que decoram a superfície celular e os lípidos e proteínas secretados ocupam o ponto de encontro onde normalmente ocorrem interacções críticas homólogas (hospedeiro-hospedeiro) e heterólogas (hospedeiro-patogénio). Apesar de ser largamente aceite que os glicanos são parte integrante do processo de imunidade, continua a não ser claro qual o papel que os glicanos, em toda a sua diversidade, tomam no quadro geral da imunidade. Os glicanos, que são frequentemente terminados por resíduos de ácido siálico, podem ser alterados por factores externos, tais como patogénios, ou por acontecimentos fisiológicos celulares específicos. Normalmente em posição terminal, as glico-estruturas que contêm ácido siálico assumem um papel fundamental numa quantidade substancial de receptores imunes envolvidos na adesividade e tráfico celular, tal como as Selectinas e as Siglecs, das quais se sabe apresentarem uma relevante função imune. À altura do início desta tese, era sabido que os ácidos siálicos expressos à superfície das células poderiam modular mecanismos importantes nas respostas imunes adaptativas. Considerando a posição de charneira que as células dendríticas (DCs) ocupam na transição da resposta imune inata para a adaptativa, antecipámos que os ácidos siálicos poderiam também modular mecanismos relevantes nas DCs humanas. As DCs têm uma função muito relevante na verificação e captura antigénica, migração para os gânglios linfáticos e apresentação antigénica aos linfócitos, uma sequência de funções que conduz, em ultima instância, à indução da resposta inata adaptativa. Considerando estas premissas, a nossa hipótese principal foi que os ácidos siálicos podem influenciar funções relevantes das DCs, tais como captura de antigénios, maturação, migração para os gânglios linfáticos e apresentação antigénica às células Para testar esta hipótese, dividimos o trabalho em quatro partes: 1) Analisámos os glicanos sialilados de superfície, expressos durante a diferenciação de monócitos humanos em DCs (moDCs). Os nossos dados mostraram que a expressão dos glicanos com ligações em O (O-glicanos) e sialilados em α2,3, assim como glicanos com ligações em N (N-glicanos) sialilados em α2,6 e α2,3 aumentou durante o processo de diferenciação das moDCs. Contribuindo para esta nova configuração glicosídica, três sialiltransferases (STs) poderão estar envolvidas: a ST6Gal-1 correlaciona-se com a expressão aumentada de N-glicanos sialilados em α2,6; a ST3Gal-1 contribui para a sialilação em α2,3 de O-glicanos, em especial de antigénios T; e a ST3Gal-4 poderá ser responsável pelo aumento de N-glicanos sialilados em α2,3. Após estímulo e consequente maturação das moDCs, ambos os níveis de expressão génica de ST6Gal-1 e ST3Gal-4 são negativamente modificados sendo, também, que a expressão de ST3Gal-1 varia consoante o estímulo. 2) Estudámos posteriormente as consequências da modulação dos ácidos siálicos de superfície nas funções das DCs. Observámos que a remoção dos ácidos siálicos de superfície diminui significativamente a capacidade de macropinocitose e endocitose mediada por receptores nas moDCs. Em contrapartida, o tratamento com sialidase aumentou significativamente a capacidade das moDCs para fagocitar Escherichia coli. Determinou-se também que este mecanismo requer a existência de ácido siálico presente nas E. coli indicando um mecanismo de interacção hospedeiro-patogénio dependente de ácido siálico em ambas as partes envolvidas. As moDCs tratadas com sialidase também apresentam um nível superior de expressão de moléculas de MHC e moléculas co-estimulatórias, sugerindo um fenótipo celular mais maduro. Recorrendo ao modelo de ratinho, utilizaram-se DCs derivadas de células da medula (BMDCs) de ratinhos deficientes em ST3Gal-1 e ST6Gal-1. Estes ensaios revelaram que quer a endocitose quer a maturação são influenciadas por modificações 37 nos glicanos sialilados em α2,3 ou α2,6. A detecção e quantificação de proteínas Nglicosiladas e sialiladas em α2,6 apontou para um potencial envolvimento de integrinas β2 nestes mecanismos. 3) O efeito da sialilação em α2,6 na migração das DCs para os gânglios linfáticos foi também analisado. Observámos que BMDCs deficientes para ST6Gal-1 apresentam uma redução de cerca de 50% nos níveis de migração das DCs para os gânglios linfáticos, tal como aferido em ensaios de inflamação in situ e estudos de transferência adoptiva de células. Uma redução dos níveis deste tipo de migração foi também observada quando BMDCs nativas foram transferidas para ratinhos receptores deficientes em ST6Gal-1. São, contudo, necessários mais ensaios de forma a identificar as moléculas envolvidas neste processo. 4) Por último, analisámos o impacto da sialilação na estimulação antigénica das DCs às células T. Assim, concluiu-se que moDCs tratadas com sialidase apresentam um nível de expressão superior de IL-12, TNF-ɑ, IL-6 e IL-10, e activação do factor de transcrição nuclear kappa B (NF-κB). As DCs tratadas com sialidase induziram uma maior proliferação nas células T, com expressão correspondente de interferão-γ. Este dado sugere que a remoção de ácidos siálicos de superfície contribui para o desenvolvimento de uma resposta pro-inflamatória do tipo 1 por células T auxiliares (resposta Th1). Considerando estes dados no seu todo, concluímos que o ácido siálico tem um papel marcante nas funções imunes das DCs. Alterações à concentração de ácido siálico à superfície das células podem alterar a endocitose/fagocitose, maturação, migração para os tecidos e gânglios linfáticos e capacidade estimulatória para com as células T. Complementando estes dados, as ligações glicosídicas de ácidos siálicos criados por ST6Gal-1 e ST3Gal-1 são funcionalmente relevantes. A modulação programada da sialilação do glicocálice, mediada por sialidases individuais ou sialiltransferases é uma possibilidade aceitável para a melhoria da fagocitose por DCs e da sua potência imunológica. Este facto tem um significado particular para imunoterapias baseadas em DCs, podendo provar-se decisivo para a sua eficiência e aplicabilidade num futuro muito próximo.-------------------------------ABSTRACT: Glycans decorating cell surface and secreted proteins and lipids occupy the junction where critical host–host and host-pathogen interactions occur. In spite of the wide acceptance that glycans are centrally implicated in immunity, exactly how glycans and their variety and variability contribute to the overall immune response remains poorly defined. Glycans, frequently terminated by sialic acid residues, may be modified by external factors such as pathogens or upon specific physiological cellular events. The terminal, privileged positions of sialic acid-modified structures makes them key, fundamental determinants for a number of immune receptors with known involvement in cellular adhesiveness and cell trafficking, such as Selectins and Siglecs, with known relevant immune functions. At the time this thesis was initiated, it was established that sialic acids expressed at cell surface could modulate important mechanisms of the adaptive immune responses. Given the key role of dendritic cells (DCs) in the transition from innate to the adaptive immune responses, we anticipated that sialic acids could also modulate important mechanisms of human DCs. DCs have a relevant role in antigen screening and uptake, migration to lymph nodes and antigen presentation to lymphocytes, ultimately triggering the adaptive immune response. Therefore, our primary hypothesis was that sialic acids may modulate DC functions, such as antigen uptake, maturation, homing to lymph nodes and antigen presentation to T cells. To test this hypothesis, we divided our work in four parts. 1) Surface sialylated glycans expressed during differentiation from human monocytes to DCs (moDCs) were analyzed. Our data showed that α2,3-sialylated O-glycans and α2,6- and α2,3-sialylated N-glycans expression increased during moDC differentiation. Three main sialyltransferases (STs) are committed with this new glycan configuration: ST6Gal- 1 correlates with the increased expression of α2,6-sialylated N-glycans; ST3Gal-1 32 contributes for the α2,3-sialylation of O-glycans, especially T antigens; and ST3Gal-4 may contribute for the increased α2,3-sialylated N-glycans. Upon moDC maturation, ST6Gal-1 and ST3Gal-4 are downregulated and ST3Gal-1 is altered in a stimulus dependent manner. 2) We subsequently analyzed the consequences of the modulation of cell surface sialic acids in DC functions. We observed that removing surface sialic acid by sialidase significantly decreased the capacity of moDCs to micropinocytose and receptormediated endocytose. In contrast, treatment with a sialidase significantly improved the capacity of moDCs to phagocytose Escherichia coli. The improved phagocytosis mechanism required E. coli sialic acids, indicating a mechanism of host–pathogen interaction dependent on sialic acid moieties. Sialidase-treated moDCs have increased expression of MHC and co-stimulatory molecules, suggesting a more mature phenotype. Experiments using mouse bone marrow-derived DCs (BMDCs) from ST3Gal-1-/- and ST6Gal-1-/- strains indicated that endocytosis and maturation are influenced by changes in either α2,3 or α2,6-sialylated glycans. The analysis of α2,6-sialylated, N-glycosylated proteins, strongly suggested the potential involvement of β2 integrins, underlying these mechanisms. 3) The effect of α2,6-sialylation in DC homing to lymph nodes was also analyzed. We observed that BMDCs deficient for ST6Gal-1 have an almost 50% reduction in DC homing, as assayed by in situ inflammation and adoptive transfer studies. A reduction in DC homing was also observed when wild type BMDCs were transferred into ST6Gal-1-/- recipient mice. Further investigations are necessary to identify the molecules involved in this process. 4) Finally, we also analyzed the impact of sialylation on DCs ability to prime T cells. Sialidase-treated moDCs show increased gene expression of IL-12, TNF-α, IL-6 and IL- 10 cytokines, and activation of the transcription factor nuclear factor-κB. Sialidase33 treated DCs induced a higher proliferative response of T cells with concomitant higher expression of interferon-γ, suggesting that the clearance of cell surface sialic acids contributes to the development of a T helper type 1 proinflammatory response. Together, our data strongly support sialic acid’s relevance in DC immune functions. Alterations of cell surface sialic acid content can alter the endocytosis/phagocytosis, maturation, migration/homing and the ability for T cell priming in human DCs. Moreover, sialic acid linkages created by ST6Gal-1 and ST3Gal-1 are functionally relevant. The engineering of cell surface sialylation, mediated by individual sialidases or sialyltransferases is a likely possibility to fine tune DC phagocytosis and immunological potency, with particular significance to DC-based therapies.

Flagellin promotes myeloid differentiation factor 88-dependent development of Th2-type response.

Activation of dendritic cells (DC) by microbial products via Toll-like receptors (TLR) is instrumental in the induction of immunity. In particular, TLR signaling plays a major role in the instruction of Th1 responses. The development of Th2 responses has been proposed to be independent of the adapter molecule myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) involved in signal transduction by TLRs. In this study we show that flagellin, the bacterial stimulus for TLR5, drives MyD88-dependent Th2-type immunity in mice. Flagellin promotes the secretion of IL-4 and IL-13 by Ag-specific CD4(+) T cells as well as IgG1 responses. The Th2-biased responses are associated with the maturation of DCs, which are shown to express TLR5. Flagellin-mediated DC activation requires MyD88 and induces NF-kappaB-dependent transcription and the production of low levels of proinflammatory cytokines. In addition, the flagellin-specific response is characterized by the lack of secretion of the Th1-promoting cytokine IL-12 p70. In conclusion, this study suggests that flagellin and, more generally, TLR ligands can control Th2 responses in a MyD88-dependent manner.

Some biological properties of the human amniotic membrane interferon

Human amniotic interferon was investigated to define the species specificity of its antiviral action and compare its anti-cellular and NK cell stimulating activities with those of other human interferons. The antiviral effect was titrated in bovine (RV-IAL) and monkey (VERO) cells. Amniotic interferon exhibited, in bovine cells, 5% of the activity seen in monkey cells, while alpha interferon displayed 200%. No effect was detected with either beta or gamma interferon in bovine cells. Daudi cells were exposed to different concentrations of various interferons and the cell numbers were determined. The anticellular effect of the amniotic interferon reached its peak on the third day of incubation. Results suggested a higher activity for alpha and gamma interferons and a lower activity for beta when compared to amniotic interferon. Using total mononuclear cells as effector cells and K 562 as target cell in a 51Cr release assay, it was demonstrated that low concentrations of amniotic interferon consistently stimulated NK cell activity in cells derived from several donors, the results indicating a higher level of activity with this interferon than with alpha and beta interferons.

Natural killer cell mediated missing-self recognition can protect mice from primary chronic myeloid leukemia in vivo.

Background: Natural Killer (NK) cells are thought to protect from residual leukemic cells in patients receiving stem cell transplantation. However, multiple retrospective analyses of patient data have yielded conflicting conclusions regarding a putative role of NK cells and the essential NK cell recognition events mediating a protective effect against leukemia. Further, a NK cell mediated protective effect against primary leukemia in vivo has not been shown directly.Methodology/Principal Findings: Here we addressed whether NK cells have the potential to control chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) arising based on the transplantation of BCR-ABL1 oncogene expressing primary bone marrow precursor cells into lethally irradiated recipient mice. These analyses identified missing-self recognition as the only NK cell-mediated recognition strategy, which is able to significantly protect from the development of CML disease in vivo.Conclusion: Our data provide a proof of principle that NK cells can control primary leukemic cells in vivo. Since the presence of NK cells reduced the abundance of leukemia propagating cancer stem cells, the data raise the possibility that NK cell recognition has the potential to cure CML, which may be difficult using small molecule BCR-ABL1 inhibitors. Finally, our findings validate approaches to treat leukemia using antibody-based blockade of self-specific inhibitory MHC class I receptors.

Novel function for interleukin-7 in dendritic cell development.

Interleukin-7 (IL-7) is crucial for the development of T and B lymphocytes from common lymphoid progenitors (CLPs) and for the maintenance of mature T lymphocytes. Its in vivo role for dendritic cells (DCs) has been poorly defined. Here, we investigated whether IL-7 is important for the development or maintenance of different DC types. Bone marrow-derived DCs expressed the IL-7 receptor (IL-7R) and survived significantly longer in the presence of IL-7. Migratory DCs (migDCs) isolated from lymph nodes also expressed IL-7R. Surprisingly, IL-7R was not required for their maintenance but indirectly for their development. Conventional DCs (cDCs) and plasmacytoid DCs (pDCs) resident in lymph nodes and spleen were IL-7R(-). Using mixed bone marrow chimeras, we observed an intrinsic requirement for IL-7R signals in their development. As the number of CLPs but not myeloid progenitors was reduced in the absence of IL-7 signals, we propose that a large fraction of cDCs and pDCs derives from CLPs and shares not only the lymphoid origin but also the IL-7 requirement with lymphocyte precursors.

Polyfunctional HCV-specific T-cell responses are associated with effective control of HCV replication.

HCV infection has a severe course of disease in HIV/HCV co-infection and in liver transplant recipients. However, the mechanisms involved remain unclear. Here, we evaluated functional profiles of HCV-specific T-cell responses in 86 HCV mono-infected patients, 48 HIV/HCV co-infected patients and 42 liver transplant recipients. IFN-gamma and IL-2 production and ability of CD4 and CD8 T cells to proliferate were assessed after stimulation with HCV-derived peptides. We observed that HCV-specific T-cell responses were polyfunctional in HCV mono-infected patients, with presence of proliferating single IL-2-, dual IL-2/IFN-gamma and single IFN-gamma-producing CD4+ and dual IL-2/IFN-gamma and single IFN-gamma-producing CD8+ cells. In contrast, HCV-specific T-cell responses had an effector profile in HIV/HCV co-infected individuals and liver transplant recipients with absence of single IL-2-producing HCV-specific CD4+ and dual IL-2/IFN-gamma-producing CD8+ T cells. In addition, HCV-specific proliferation of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells was severely impaired in HIV/HCV co-infected patients and liver transplant recipients. Importantly, "only effector" T-cell responses were associated with significantly higher HCV viral load and more severe liver fibrosis scores. Therefore, the present results suggest that immune-based mechanisms may contribute to explain the accelerated course of HCV infection in conditions of HIV-1 co-infection and liver transplantation.

T cell receptor specificity is critical for the development of epidermal gammadelta T cells.

A particular feature of gammadelta T cell biology is that cells expressing T cell receptor (TCR) using specific Vgamma/Vdelta segments are localized in distinct epithelial sites, e.g., in mouse epidermis nearly all gammadelta T cells express Vgamma3/Vdelta1. These cells, referred to as dendritic epidermal T cells (DETC) originate from fetal Vgamma3+ thymocytes. The role of gammadelta TCR specificity in DETC's migration/localization to the skin has remained controversial. To address this issue we have generated transgenic (Tg) mice expressing a TCR delta chain (Vdelta6.3-Ddelta1-Ddelta2-Jdelta1-Cdelta), which can pair with Vgamma3 in fetal thymocytes but is not normally expressed by DETC. In wild-type (wt) Vdelta6.3Tg mice DETC were present and virtually all of them express Vdelta6.3. However, DETC were absent in TCR-delta(-/-) Vdelta6.3Tg mice, despite the fact that Vdelta6.3Tg gammadelta T cells were present in normal numbers in other lymphoid and nonlymphoid tissues. In wt Vdelta6.3Tg mice, a high proportion of in-frame Vdelta1 transcripts were found in DETC, suggesting that the expression of an endogenous TCR-delta (most probably Vdelta1) was required for the development of Vdelta6.3+ epidermal gammadelta T cells. Collectively our data demonstrate that TCR specificity is essential for the development of gammadelta T cells in the epidermis. Moreover, they show that the TCR-delta locus is not allelically excluded.

Lassa virus entry in antigen presenting cells and evaluation of a novel nanoparticle vaccine platform against arena viruses

Arenaviruses are a large and diverse family of viruses that merit significant attention as causative agents of severe hemorrhagic fevers in humans. Lassa virus (LASV) in Africa and the South American hemorrhagic fever viruses Junin (JUNV), Machupo (MACV), and Guanarito (GTOV) have emerged as important human pathogens and represent serious public health problems in their respective endemic areas. A hallmark of fatal arenaviruses hemorrhagic fevers is a marked immunosuppression of the infected patients. Antigen presenting cells (APCs) such as macrophages and in particular dendritic cells (DCs) are early and preferred targets of arenaviruses infection. Instead of being recognized and presented as foreign antigens by DCs, arenaviruses subvert the normal mechanisms of pathogen recognition, invade DCs and establish a productive infection. Viral replication perturbs the DCs' ability to present antigens and to activate T and B cells, contributing to the marked virus-induced immunosuppression observed in fatal disease. Considering their crucial role in the development of an anti-viral immune response, the mechanisms by which arenaviruses, and in particular LASV, invade DCs are of particular interest. The C-type lectin DC-specific Intercellular adhesion molecule-3-grabbing nonintegrin (DC-SIGN) was recently identified as a potential entry receptor for LASV. The first project of my thesis focused therefore on the investigation of the role of DC-SIGN in LASV entry into primary human DCs. My data revealed that DC-SIGN serves as an attachment factor for LASV on human DCs and can facilitate capture of free virus and subsequent cell entry. However, in contrast to other emerging viruses, of the phlebovirus family, I found that DC-SIGN does likely not function as an authentic entry receptor for LASV. Moreover, I was able to show that LASV enters DCs via an unusually slow pathway that depends on actin, but is independent of clathrin and dynamin. Considering the lack of effective treatments and the limited public health infrastructure in endemic regions, the development of protective vaccines against arenaviruses is an urgent need. To address this issue, the second project of my thesis aimed at the development of a novel recombinant arenavirus vaccine based on a nanoparticle (NPs) platform and its evaluation in a small animal model. During the first phase of the project I designed, produced, and characterized suitable vaccine antigens. In the second phase of the project, I generated antigen-conjugated NPs, developed vaccine formulations, and tested the NPs for their ability to elicit anti-viral T cell responses as well as anti-viral antibodies. I demonstrated that the NPs platform is able to activate both cellular and humoral branches of the adaptive anti-viral immunity, providing proof-of-principle. In sum, my first project will allow, in a long term perspective, a better understanding of the viral pathogenesis and contribute to the development of novel antiviral strategies. The second project will expectidly offer a new treatment option against arenaviruses.

Protease-activated receptor 2 signalling promotes dendritic cell antigen transport and T-cell activation in vivo.

Deficiency of protease-activated receptor-2 (PAR2) modulates inflammation in several models of inflammatory and autoimmune disease, although the underlying mechanism(s) are not understood. PAR2 is expressed on endothelial and immune cells, and is implicated in dendritic cell (DC) differentiation. We investigated in vivo the impact of PAR2 activation on DCs and T cells in PAR2 wild-type (WT) and knockout (KO) mice using a specific PAR2 agonist peptide (AP2). PAR2 activation significantly increased the frequency of mature CD11c(high) DCs in draining lymph nodes 24 hr after AP2 administration. Furthermore, these DCs exhibited increased expression of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II and CD86. A significant increase in activated (CD44(+) CD62(-)) CD4(+) and CD8(+) T-cell frequencies was also observed in draining lymph nodes 48 hr after AP2 injection. No detectable change in DC or T-cell activation profiles was observed in the spleen. The influence of PAR2 signalling on antigen transport to draining lymph nodes was assessed in the context of delayed-type hypersensitivity. PAR2 WT mice that were sensitized by skin-painting with fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) to induce delayed-type hypersensitivity possessed elevated proportion of FITC(+) DCs in draining lymph nodes 24 hr after FITC painting when compared with PAR2 KO mice (0.95% versus 0.47% of total lymph node cells). Collectively, these results demonstrate that PAR2 signalling promotes DC trafficking to the lymph nodes and subsequent T-cell activation, and thus provides an explanation for the pro-inflammatory effect of PAR2 in animal models of inflammation.

The changing preference of T and B cells for partners as T-dependent antibody responses develop.

Recirculating virgin CD4+ T cells spend their life migrating between the T zones of secondary lymphoid tissues where they screen the surface of interdigitating dendritic cells. T-cell priming starts when processed peptides or superantigen associated with class II MHC molecules are recognised. Those primed T cells that remain within the lymphoid tissue move to the outer T zone, where they interact with B cells that have taken up and processed antigen. Cognate interaction between these cells initiates immunoglobulin (Ig) class switch-recombination and proliferation of both B and T cells; much of this growth occurs outside the T zones B cells migrate to follicles, where they form germinal centres, and to extrafollicular sites of B-cell growth, where they differentiate into mainly short-lived plasma cells. T cells do not move to the extrafollicular foci, but to the follicles; there they proliferate and are subsequently involved in the selection of B cells that have mutated their Ig variable-region genes. During primary antibody responses T-cell proliferation in follicles produces many times the peak number of T cells found in that site: a substantial proportion of the CD4+ memory T-cell pool may originate from growth in follicles.