Understanding the bioactivity of plant tannins: developments in analysis methods and structure-activity studies

Tannins, typically segregated into two major groups, the hydrolyzable tannins (HTs) and the proanthocyanidins (PAs), are plant polyphenolic secondary metabolites found throughout the plant kingdom. On one hand, tannins may cause harmful nutritional effects on herbivores, for example insects, and hence they work as plants’ defense against plant-eating animals. On the other hand, they may affect positively some herbivores, such as mammals, for example by their antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory or anticarcinogenic activities. This thesis focuses on understanding the bioactivity of plant tannins, their anthelmintic properties and the tools used for the qualitative and quantitative analysis of this endless source of structural diversity. The first part of the experimental work focused on the development of ultra-high performance liquid chromatography−tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) based methods for the rapid fingerprint analysis of bioactive polyphenols, especially tannins. In the second part of the experimental work the in vitro activity of isolated and purified HTs and their hydrolysis product, gallic acid, was tested against egg hatching and larval motility of two larval developmental stages, L1 and L2, of a common ruminant gastrointestinal parasite, Haemonchus contortus. The results indicated clear relationships between the HT structure and the anthelmintic activity. The activity of the studied compounds depended on many structural features, including size, functional groups present in the structure, and the structural rigidness. To further understand tannin bioactivity on a molecular level, the interaction between bovine serum albumin (BSA), and seven HTs and epigallocatechin gallate was examined. The objective was to define the effect of pH on the formation on tannin–protein complexes and to evaluate the stability of the formed complexes by gel electrophoresis and MALDI-TOF-MS. The results indicated that more basic pH values had a stabilizing effect on the tannin–protein complexes and that the tannin oxidative activity was directly linked with their tendency to form covalently stabilized complexes with BSA at increased pH.

Antiobesity and antidiabetic activity of P. balsamifera, its active Salicortin, and L. laricina, medicinal plants from the traditional pharmacopoeia of the James Bay Cree

La prévalence de l’obésité, du diabète de type 2, et du syndrome métabolique, sont à la hausse chez les Cris d’Eeyou Istchee (CEI-Nord du Québec). Ces problèmes sont aggravés par leur diète non traditionnelle, leur sédentarité, ainsi que par une résistance culturelle aux produits pharmaceutiques. Afin de développer des traitements antidiabétiques culturellement adaptés, notre équipe a effectué une enquête ethnobotanique qui a identifié 17 plantes provenant de la pharmacopée traditionnelle des CEI. À partir des études de criblage effectuées in vitro, deux plantes parmi les 17 ont attiré notre attention. Populus balsamifera L. (Salicaceae) pour ses propriétés anti-obésité et Larix laricina K. Koch (Pinaceae) pour ses propriétés antidiabétiques. P. balsamifera et son composé actif salicortin ont inhibé l’accumulation de triglycérides durant l’adipogénèse dans les adipocytes 3T3-L1. L. laricina a augmenté le transport de glucose et l’activation de l’AMPK dans les cellules musculaires C2C12, l’adipogénèse dans les 3T3-L1 et a démontré un fort potentiel découpleur (propriété anti-obésité). Les objectifs de cette thèse sont d'évaluer les potentiels anti-obésité et antidiabétique et d’élucider les mécanismes d'action de P. balsamifera, salicortin, et L. laricina chez la souris C57BL/6 rendue obèse par une diète riche en gras (HFD). Les souris ont été soumises pendant huit (étude préventive) ou seize semaines (étude traitement) à une HFD, ou à une HFD dans laquelle P. balsamifera, salicortin, ou L. laricina a été incorporé soit dès le départ (prévention), ou dans les 8 dernières des 16 semaines d'administration de HFD (traitement). iv Les résultats démontrent que P. balsamifera (dans les deux études) et salicortin (évalué dans l’étude traitement) diminuent: le poids corporel, le gras rétropéritonéal, la sévérité de la stéatose et l’accumulation de triglycérides hépatique (ERK impliqué), les niveaux de glycémie et d'insuline, et le ratio leptine/adiponectine. Dans les deux études, P. balsamifera a significativement réduit la consommation de nourriture mais cet effet coupe-faim nécessite d’être approfondi. Dans l'étude préventive, P. balsamifera a augmenté la dépense énergétique (hausse de la température à la surface de la peau et de l’activation de la protéine découplante-1; UCP-1). Les voies de signalisation activées par P. balsamifera et par salicortin (de façon plus modeste) sont impliquées dans: la production de glucose hépatique (Akt), l’expression de Glut4 dans le muscle squelettique, la captation du glucose et du métabolisme des lipides (Akt dans le tissu adipeux), la différenciation des adipocytes (ERK et PPARg), l’inflammation dans le foie (IKKαβ), et l'oxydation des acides gras dans le muscle, le foie, ou le tissu adipeux (PPARa et CPT-1). D’autre part, L. laricina a également diminué les niveaux de glycémie et d’insuline, le ratio leptine/adiponectine, le gras rétropéritonéal et le poids corporel. Ces effets ont été observés en conjonction avec une augmentation de la dépense énergétique: hausse de température à la surface de la peau (prévention) et amélioration de la fonction mitochondriale et de la synthèse d'ATP (traitement). En conclusion, l’utilisation de P. balsamifera, salicortin et L. laricina comme des traitements alternatifs et culturellement adaptés aux CEI représente une contribution importante dans la prévention et le traitement de l’obésité et du diabète.

The inflammatory role of angiogenic growth factors : a neutrophil perspective

De par sa présence dans tous les vaisseaux sanguins, l'endothélium joue un rôle clef dans le processus d’hémostase, tant par sa libération de facteurs anticoagulants que par ses changements protéiques qui permettent à l’organisme de déclencher la réparation tissulaire. La fonction anticoagulante de l’endothélium peut être mise en défaut en cas d’atteinte de son intégrité, entrainant la formation de thrombus, le rejet précoce de greffes ou encore l’induction de l’athérosclérose. L’intégrité de l’endothélium est donc capitale pour la prévention de nombreuses maladies cardiovasculaires. Chez l’adulte, les cellules endothéliales (CE), normalement quiescentes, sont rapidement activées en cas d’hypoxie ou d’inflammation, leur permettant ainsi d’amorcer le processus angiogénique comme suit: Tout d’abord, l’induction de l’hyperperméabilité vasculaire permet l’extravasation des protéines plasmatiques. Ensuite, la dégradation de la lame basale par des métalloprotéases permet aux CE de se détacher, de proliférer, de migrer et de s’organiser pour former l’ébauche du futur vaisseau. La dernière étape consiste en la maturation du vaisseau, c’est-à-dire son recouvrement par des cellules murales, telles que les cellules musculaires lisses et les péricytes. Ces processus sont régulés par de nombreux facteurs angiogéniques tels que les membres de la famille Notch, du vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), du fibroblast growth factor (FGF), des angiopoïétines, et des matrix metalloproteases (MMP). L’angiogenèse pathologique, soit une insuffisance ou un excès de vascularisation, est impliquée dans les blessures chroniques, les accidents cardiovasculaires, les pathologies coronariennes artérielles, les pathologies tumorales, l’arthrite rhumatoïde, la rétinopathie diabétique, l’athérosclérose, le psoriasis et l’asthme. Ces pathologies sont souvent issues d’une dérégulation de l’activité endothéliale, fréquemment observée conjointement à l’expression continue de molécules d’adhésion leucocytaires, à l’augmentation de la perméabilité vasculaire, et aux anomalies de la vasoréactivité. L’activation non-contrôlée de l’endothélium entraîne ainsi une inflammation chronique et la formation de structures vasculaires anarchiques. Les premiers leucocytes à répondre à l’appel inflammatoire sont les neutrophiles. Equippées d’une panoplie de produits antibactériens puissants mais aussi nocifs pour les tissus qui les entourent, ces cellules polylobées participent à chaque étape du processus inflammatoire, depuis l’induction de l’hyperperméabilité vasculaire jusqu’à la résolution. En effet, grâce à leurs récepteurs, les neutrophiles détectent et interprètent les signaux biochimiques présents dans la circulation et à la surface de l’endothélium, et libèrent aussi leurs propres médiateurs tels le VEGF, les MMP, et l’interleukine-8 (IL-8), dont les effets sont à la fois paracrines et autocrines. Existent-ils d’autres modulateurs typiques de la fonction endothéliale capables d’influencer le comportement des neutrophiles? En effet, notre laboratoire a démontré que chez l’humain, une stimulation directe aux angiopoïétines incitait les neutrophiles à adhérer aux CE, à migrer, à synthétiser et à relâcher l’IL-8, voire même à vivre plus longtemps. La présence du récepteur des angiopoïétines, Tie2, à la surface des neutrophiles laisse présager que la famille possèderait d’autres fonctions leucocytaires encore non-identifiées. Par ailleurs, dans un modèle classique de l’angiogenèse in vivo (matrigel), nous avons observé que sous l’effet du FGF1 et 2, les ébauches des nouveaux vaisseaux étaient parfois accompagnées d’une infiltration de cellules granulocytaires. Ainsi, en partant de ces observations, l’objectif de nos études (présentées ci-après) était d’approfondir nos connaissances sur la relation entre neutrophiles et facteurs angiogéniques, notamment les FGF et les angiopoïétines. Par tests in vitro, nous avons confirmé que les neutrophiles humains exprimaient plusieurs récepteurs du FGF (FGFR1-4) d’une façon hétérogène, et qu’ils migraient vers un gradient des ligands FGF1 et 2. Par ailleurs, nous nous sommes intéressés aux voies de signalisation inflammatoires activées par les ligands FGF1, FGF2, Ang1 et Ang2. Grâce à une stratégie génique ciblant 84 gènes inflammatoires, nous avons identifié plusieurs cibles d’intérêt touchées par Ang1, dont certains membres de la famille de l’IL-1, alors qu’aucun des gènes testés n’avait changé de façon significative sous l’effet des FGF ou d’Ang2. Suite à des cinétiques approfondies, nous avons démontré qu’Ang1 stimulait la transcription de l’ARN messager de l’IL-1β, et augmentait simultanément la quantité de protéine immature (pro-IL-1β; inactive) et clivée (IL-1β « mature »; active). En parallèle, Ang1 augmentait la sécrétion de l’antagoniste naturel de l’IL-1β, l’IL-1RA, sans pour autant stimuler la relâche de l’IL-1β. A l’instar des endotoxines bactériennes dont les effets liés à l’IL-1 dépendaient de la kinase p38, ceux d’Ang1 découlaient presque entièrement des voies de signalisation du p42/44.

Participation in leisure and physical activity among children and adolescents with juvenile idiopathic arthritis

Contexte: L’arthrite juvénile idiopathique (AJI) est l’une des maladies chroniques auto-immune les plus répandues chez les enfants et est caractérisée par des enflures articulaires (maladie active), de la douleur, de la fatigue et des raideurs matinales pouvant restreindre leur niveau de participation aux activités quotidiennes (par exemple: les loisirs, l’activité physique, la mobilité et les soins personnels) à la maison comme à l’école. Participer aux activités de loisirs et à l’activité physique a des bienfaits au niveau de la santé et du développement de tous les enfants et démontrent aussi des effets positifs qui réduisent les symptômes des maladies chroniques telle l’AJI. Malgré ces bienfaits la participation aux loisirs chez les jeunes avec l’AJI demeure largement sous-étudiée. Objectifs: Cette étude vise à évaluer le niveau de participation aux loisirs et à l’activité physique chez les enfants et les adolescents atteints d’AJI, ainsi qu’à identifier les facteurs liés à la maladie, la personne et l’environnement. Méthodes : L’évaluation du niveau de participation et l’exploration des facteurs associés aux loisirs et à l’activité physique ont été complétés par l’entremise d’une revue systématique de la littérature, l’analyse de données d’un échantillon national représentatif d’enfants canadiens atteints d’arthrite âgés entre 5 et 14 ans (npondéré = 4350), ainsi que l’analyse standardisée du niveau de participation aux loisirs à l’aide du Children’s Assessment of Participation and Enjoyment (n=107) et la mesure objective de l’activité physique par accéléromètre (n=76) auprès d’un échantillon d’enfants (âgés entre 8 et 11 ans ) et d’adolescents (âgés entre 12 et 17 ans) suivis en clinique de rhumatologie à l’hôpital de Montréal pour enfants, Centre Universitaire de Santé McGill. Les résultats cliniques ont été comparés à des données normatives, ainsi qu’à un groupe contrôle sans AJI. Nous avons exploré les facteurs associés avec le niveau de participation aux loisirs et à l’activité physique en utilisant les modèles de régression linéaire multiple et l’analyse hiérarchique. Résultats : Les enfants et les adolescents atteints d’AJI participent à une multitude d’activités de loisirs; cependant ils sont moins souvent impliqués dans des activités physiques et de raffinement en comparaison aux autres types d’activités de loisirs. Ceux avec l’AJI étaient en général moins actifs que leurs pairs sans arthrite et la plupart n’atteignaient pas les recommandations nationales d’activité physique. Les garçons avec l’AJI participent plus souvent à des activités physiques et moins aux activités sociales, de raffinement et de développement de soi en comparaison avec les filles ayant l’AJI. En général, être un garçon, être plus âgé, avoir une meilleure motivation pour participer aux activités de motricité globale, avoir un statut socio-économique plus élevé et être d’origine culturelle canadienne sont associés à un niveau de participation plus élevé aux activités physiques. La préférence pour les activités de raffinement, un niveau d’éducation maternelle plus élevé et être une fille étaient associés à un niveau de participation plus élevé aux activités de raffinement. Conclusion: La participation aux loisirs et à l’activité physique en AJI est un concept complexe et semble surtout être expliqué par des facteurs personnels et environnementaux. L’identification des facteurs associés aux loisirs et à l’activité physique est très importante en AJI puisqu’elle peut permettre aux professionnels de la santé de développer des interventions significatives basées sur les activités préférées des enfants, améliorer l’observance au traitement et promouvoir des habitudes de vie saine.

Selective effects of Lactobacillus casei Shirota on T cell activation, natural killer cell activity and cytokine production

Modulation of host immunity is an important potential mechanism by which probiotics confer health benefits. This study was designed to investigate the effects of a probiotic strain, Lactobacillus casei Shirota (LcS), on immune function, using human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) in vitro. In addition, the role of monocytes in LcS-induced immunity was also explored. LcS promoted natural killer (NK) cell activity and preferentially induced expression of CD69 and CD25 on CD8+ and CD56+ subsets in the absence of any other stimulus. LcS also induced production of IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, IL-12 and IL-10 in the absence of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). In the presence of LPS, LcS enhanced IL-1β production, but inhibited LPS-induced IL-10 and IL-6 production, and had no further effect on TNF-α and IL-12 production. Monocyte-depletion significantly reduced the impact of LcS on lymphocyte activation, cytokine production and NK cell activity. In conclusion, LcS preferentially activated cytotoxic lymphocytes in both the innate and specific immune system, which suggests that LcS could potentiate the destruction of infected cells in the body. LcS also induced both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokine production in the absence of LPS, but inhibited LPS-induced cytokine production in some cases. Monocytes play an important role in LcS-induced immunological responses.

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) inhibit vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation via differential effects on the cell cycle

Abnormal vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) proliferation plays an important role in the pathogenesis of both atherosclerosis and restenosis. Recent studies suggest that high-dose salicylates, in addition to inhibiting cyclooxygenase activity, exert an antiproliferative effect on VSMC growth both in-vitro and in-vivo. However, whether all non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) exert similar anti proliferative effects on VSMCs, and do so via a common mechanism of action, remains to be shown. In this study, we demonstrate that the NSAIDs aspirin, sodium salicylate, diclofenac, ibuprofen, indometacin and sulindac induce a dose-dependent inhibition of proliferation in rat A10 VSMCs in the absence of significant cytotoxicity. Flow cytometric analyses showed that exposure of A10 cells to diclofenac, indometacin, ibuprofen and sulindac, in the presence of the mitotic inhibitor, nocodazole, led to a significant G0/G1 arrest. In contrast, the salicylates failed to induce a significant G1 arrest since flow cytometry profiles were not significantly different from control cells. Cyclin A levels were elevated, and hyperphosphorylated p107 was present at significant levels, in salicylate-treated A10 cells, consistent with a post-G1/S block, whereas cyclin A levels were low, and hypophosphorylated p107 was the dominant form, in cells treated with other NSAIDs consistent with a G1 arrest. The ubiquitously expressed cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) inhibitors, p21 and p27, were increased in all NSAID-treated cells. Our results suggest that diclofenac, indometacin, ibuprofen and sulindac inhibit VSMC proliferation by arresting the cell cycle in the G1 phase, whereas the growth inhibitory effect of salicylates probably affects the late S and/or G2/M phases. Irrespective of mechanism, our results suggest that NSAIDs might be of benefit in the treatment of certain vasculoproliferative disorders.

Inhibition of vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation by non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs

Abnormal vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) proliferation is known to play an important role in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis, restenosis and instent stenosis. Recent studies suggest that salicylates, in addition to inhibiting cyclooxygenase activity, exert an antiproliferative effect on VSMC growth both in vitro and in vivo. However, whether all non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID) exert similar antiproliferative effects on VSMCs, and do so via a common mechanism of action, remains unknown. In the present study, we demonstrated that the NSAIDs, aspirin, ibuprofen and sulindac induced a dose-dependent inhibition of proliferation in rat A10 VSMCs (IC50 = 1666 mumol/L, 937 mumol/L and 520 mumol/L, respectively). These drugs did not show significant cytotoxic effects as determined by LDH release assay, even at the highest concentrations tested (aspirin, 5000 mumol/L; ibuprofen, 2500 mumol/L; and sulindac, 1000 mumol/L). Flow cytometric analyses showed that a 48 h exposure of A10 VSMCs to ibuprofen (1000 mumol/L) and sulindac (750 mumol/L) led to a significant G1 arrest (from 68.7 +/- 2.0% of cells in G1 to 76.6 +/- 2.2% and 75.8 +/- 2.2%, respectively, p < 0.05). In contrast, aspirin (2500 mumol/L) failed to induce a significant G1 arrest (68.1 +/- 5.2%). Clearer evidence of a G1 block was obtained by treatment of cells with the mitotic inhibitor, nocodazole (40 ng/ml), for the final 24 h of the experiment. Under these conditions, aspirin still failed to induce a G1 arrest (from 25.9 +/- 10.9% of cells in G1 to 19.6 +/- 2.3%) whereas ibuprofen and sulindac led to a significant accumulation of cells in G1(51.8% +/- 17.2% and 54.1% +/- 10.6%, respectively, p < 0.05). These results indicate that ibuprofen and sulindac inhibit VSMC proliferation by arresting the cell cycle in the G1 phase whereas the effect of aspirin appears to be independent of any special phase of the cell cycle. Irrespective of mechanism, our results suggest that NSAIDs might be of benefit to the treatment of vascular proliferative disorders.

The pro-inflammatory oxidant hypochlorous acid induces Bax-dependent mitochondrial permeabilisation and cell death through AIF-/EndoG-dependent pathways

At sites of chronic inflammation, such as in the inflamed rheumatoid joint, activated neutrophils release hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and the enzyme myeloperoxidase to catalyse the formation of hypochlorous acid (HOCl). 3-chlorotyrosine, a marker of HOCl in vivo, has been observed in synovial fluid proteins from rheumatoid arthritis patients. However the mechanisms of HOCl-induced cytotxicity are unknown. We determined the molecular mechanisms by which HOCl induced cell death in human mesenchymal progenitor cells (MPCs) differentiated into a chondrocytic phenotype as a model of human cartilage cells and show that HOCl induced rapid Bax conformational change, mitochondrial permeability and release of intra-mitochondrial pro-apoptotic proteins which resulted in nuclear translocation of AIF and EndoG. siRNA-mediated knockdown of Bax substantially prevented mitochondrial permeability, release of intra-mitochondrial pro-apoptotic proteins. Cell death was inhibited by siRNA-mediated knockdown of Bax, AIF or EndoG. Although we observed several biochemical markers of apoptosis, caspase activation was not detected either by western blotting, fluorescence activity assays or by using caspase inhibitors to inhibit cell death. This was further supported by findings that (1) in vitro exposure of recombinant human caspases to HOCl caused significant inhibition of caspase activity and (2) the addition of HOCl to staurosporine-treated MPCs inhibited the activity of cellular caspases. Our results show for the first time that HOCl induced Bax-dependent mitochondrial permeability which led to cell death without caspase activity by processes involving AIF/EndoG-dependent pathways. Our study provides a novel insight into the potential mechanisms of cell death in the inflamed human joint. (c) 2006 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

The citrus flavanone naringenin inhibits inflammatory signalling in glial cells and protects against neuroinflammatory injury

Neuroinflammation plays an integral role in the progression of neurodegeneration. In this study we investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of different classes of flavonoids (flavanones, flavanols and anthocyanidins) in primary mixed glial cells. We found that the flavanones naringenin and hesperetin and the flavols (+)-catechin and (-)-epicatechin, but not the anthocyanidins cyanidin and pelargonidin, attenuated LPS/IFN-gamma-induced TNF-alpha production in glial cells. Naringenin also inhibited LPS/IFN-gamma-induced iNOS expression and nitric oxide production in glial cells, thus showing the strongest antiinflammatory activity among all flavonoids tested. Moreover, naringenin protected against inflammatory-induced neuronal death in a primary neuronal-glial co-culture system. Naringenin also inhibited LPS/IFN-gamma-induced p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) phosphorylation and downstream signal transducer and activator of transcription-1 (STAT-1) in LPS/IFN-gamma stimulated primary mixed glial cells. Taken together, our results suggest that naringenin may produce an anti-inflammatory effect in LPS/IFN-gamma stimulated glial cells that may be due to its interaction with p38 signalling cascades and the STAT-I trascription factor. (C) 2009 Elseiver Inc. All rights reserved.

Regulation of NF-κB activity in astrocytes: effects of flavonoids at dietary-relevant concentrations

Neuroinflammation plays an important role in the progression of neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease. Sustained activation of nuclear transcription factor κB (NF-κB) is thought to play an important role in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders. Flavonoids have been shown to possess antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties and we investigated whether flavonoids, at submicromolar concentrations relevant to their bioavailability from the diet, were able to modulate NF-κB signalling in astrocytes. Using luciferase reporter assays, we found that tumour necrosis factor (TNFα, 150 ng/ml) increased NF-κB-mediated transcription in primary cultures of mouse cortical astrocytes, which was abolished on co-transfection of a dominant-negative IκBα construct. In addition, TNFα increased nuclear localisation of p65 as shown by immunocytochemistry. To investigate potential flavonoid modulation of NF-κB activity, astrocytes were treated with flavonoids from different classes; flavan-3-ols ((−)-epicatechin and (+)-catechin), flavones (luteolin and chrysin), a flavonol (kaempferol) or the flavanones (naringenin and hesperetin) at dietary-relevant concentrations (0.1–1 μM) for 18 h. None of the flavonoids modulated constitutive or TNFα-induced NF-κB activity. Therefore, we conclude that NF-κB signalling in astrocytes is not a major target for flavonoids.

Inflammatory modulation of exercise salience: using hormesis to return to a healthy lifestyle

Most of the human population in the western world has access to unlimited calories and leads an increasingly sedentary lifestyle. The propensity to undertake voluntary exercise or indulge in spontaneous physical exercise, which might be termed "exercise salience", is drawing increased scientific attention. Despite its genetic aspects, this complex behaviour is clearly modulated by the environment and influenced by physiological states. Inflammation is often overlooked as one of these conditions even though it is known to induce a state of reduced mobility. Chronic subclinical inflammation is associated with the metabolic syndrome; a largely lifestyle-induced disease which can lead to decreased exercise salience. The result is a vicious cycle that increases oxidative stress and reduces metabolic flexibility and perpetuates the disease state. In contrast, hormetic stimuli can induce an anti-inflammatory phenotype, thereby enhancing exercise salience, leading to greater biological fitness and improved functional longevity. One general consequence of hormesis is upregulation of mitochondrial function and resistance to oxidative stress. Examples of hormetic factors include calorie restriction, extreme environmental temperatures, physical activity and polyphenols. The hormetic modulation of inflammation, and thus, exercise salience, may help to explain the highly heterogeneous expression of voluntary exercise behaviour and therefore body composition phenotypes of humans living in similar obesogenic environments.

The integration of lipid-sensing and anti-inflammatory effects: how the PPARs play a role in metabolic balance

The peroxisomal proliferating-activated receptors (PPARs) are lipid-sensing transcription factors that have a role in embryonic development, but are primarily known for modulating energy metabolism, lipid storage, and transport, as well as inflammation and wound healing. Currently, there is no consensus as to the overall combined function of PPARs and why they evolved. We hypothesize that the PPARs had to evolve to integrate lipid storage and burning with the ability to reduce oxidative stress, as energy storage is essential for survival and resistance to injury/infection, but the latter increases oxidative stress and may reduce median survival (functional longevity). In a sense, PPARs may be an evolutionary solution to something we call the 'hypoxia-lipid' conundrum, where the ability to store and burn fat is essential for survival, but is a 'double-edged sword', as fats are potentially highly toxic. Ways in which PPARs may reduce oxidative stress involve modulation of mitochondrial uncoupling protein (UCP) expression (thus reducing reactive oxygen species, ROS), optimising forkhead box class O factor (FOXO) activity (by improving whole body insulin sensitivity) and suppressing NFkB (at the transcriptional level). In light of this, we therefore postulate that inflammation-induced PPAR downregulation engenders many of the signs and symptoms of the metabolic syndrome, which shares many features with the acute phase response (APR) and is the opposite of the phenotype associated with calorie restriction and high FOXO activity. In genetically susceptible individuals (displaying the naturally mildly insulin resistant 'thrifty genotype'), suboptimal PPAR activity may follow an exaggerated but natural adipose tissue-related inflammatory signal induced by excessive calories and reduced physical activity, which normally couples energy storage with the ability to mount an immune response. This is further worsened when pancreatic decompensation occurs, resulting in gluco-oxidative stress and lipotoxicity, increased inflammatory insulin resistance and oxidative stress. Reactivating PPARs may restore a metabolic balance and help to adapt the phenotype to a modern lifestyle.

1,8-Cineol inhibits nuclear translocation of NF-κB p65 and NF-κB-dependent transcriptional activity

Natural plant-derived products are commonly applied to treat a broad range of human diseases, including cancer as well as chronic and acute airway inflammation. In this regard, the monoterpene oxide 1,8-cineol, the active ingredient of the clinically approved drug Soledum®, is well-established for the therapy of airway diseases, such as chronic sinusitis and bronchitis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and bronchial asthma. Although clinical trials underline the beneficial effects of 1,8-cineol in treating inflammatory diseases, the molecular mode of action still remains unclear. Here, we demonstrate for the first time a 1,8-cineol-depending reduction of NF-κB-activity in human cell lines U373 and HeLa upon stimulation using lipopolysaccharides (LPS). Immunocytochemistry further revealed a reduced nuclear translocation of NF-κB p65, while qPCR and western blot analyses showed strongly attenuated expression of NF-κB target genes. Treatment with 1,8-cineol further led to increased protein levels of IκBα in an IKK-independent matter, while FRET-analyses showed restoring of LPS-associated loss of interaction between NF-κB p65 and IκBα. We likewise observed reduced amounts of phosphorylated c-Jun N-terminal kinase 1/2 protein in U373 cells after exposure to 1,8-cineol. In addition, 1,8-cineol led to decreased amount of nuclear NF-κB p65 and reduction of its target gene IκBα at protein level in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Our findings suggest a novel mode of action of 1,8-cineol through inhibition of nuclear NF-κB p65 translocation via IκBα resulting in decreased levels of proinflammatory NF-κB target genes and may therefore broaden the field of clinical application of this natural drug for treating inflammatory diseases.

GRID and docking analyses reveal a molecular basis for flavonoid inhibition of src-family kinase activity

Flavonoids reduce cardiovascular disease risk through anti-inflammatory, anti-coagulant and anti-platelet actions. One key flavonoid inhibitory mechanism is blocking kinase activity that drives these processes. Flavonoids attenuate activities of kinases including phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K), Fyn, Lyn, Src, Syk, PKC, PIM1/2, ERK, JNK, and PKA. X-ray crystallographic analyses of kinase-flavonoid complexes show that flavonoid ring systems and their hydroxyl substitutions are important structural features for their binding to kinases. A clearer understanding of structural interactions of flavonoids with kinases is necessary to allow construction of more potent and selective counterparts. We examined flavonoid (quercetin, apigenin and catechin) interactions with Src-family kinases (Lyn, Fyn and Hck) applying the Sybyl docking algorithm and GRID. A homology model (Lyn) was used in our analyses to demonstrate that high quality predicted kinase structures are suitable for flavonoid computational studies. Our docking results revealed potential hydrogen bond contacts between flavonoid hydroxyls and kinase catalytic site residues. Identification of plausible contacts indicated that quercetin formed the most energetically stable interactions, apigenin lacked hydroxyl groups necessary for important contacts, and the non-planar structure of catechin could not support predicted hydrogen bonding patterns. GRID analysis using a hydroxyl functional group supported docking results. Based on these findings, we predicted that quercetin would inhibit activities of Src-family kinases with greater potency than apigenin and catechin. We validated this prediction using in vitro kinase assays. We conclude that our study can be used as a basis to construct virtual flavonoid interaction libraries to guide drug discovery using these compounds as molecular templates.

Anthelmintic activity of trans-cinnamaldehyde and A- and B-type proanthocyanidins derived from cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum)

Cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum) has been shown to have anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties, but effects on parasitic worms of the intestine have not been investigated. Here, extracts of cinnamon bark were shown to have potent in vitro anthelmintic properties against the swine nematode Ascaris suum. Analysis of the extract revealed high concentrations of proanthocyanidins (PAC) and trans-cinnamaldehyde (CA). The PAC were subjected to thiolysis and HPLC-MS analysis which demonstrated that they were exclusively procyanidins, had a mean degree of polymerization of 5.2 and 21% of their inter-flavan-3-ol links were A-type linkages. Purification of the PAC revealed that whilst they had activity against A. suum, most of the potency of the extract derived from CA. Trichuris suis and Oesophagostomum dentatum larvae were similarly susceptible to CA. To test whether CA could reduce A. suum infection in pigs in vivo, CA was administered daily in the diet or as a targeted, encapsulated dose. However, infection was not significantly reduced. It is proposed that the rapid absorption or metabolism of CA in vivo may prevent it from being present in sufficient concentrations in situ to exert efficacy. Therefore, further work should focus on whether formulation of CA can enhance its activity against internal parasites.