Unwritten law in Hobbesian political thought

In Hobbesian terminology, ‘unwritten laws’ are natural laws enforced within a polity, by a non-sovereign judge, without some previous public promulgation. This article discusses the idea in the light of successive Hobbesian accounts of ‘law’ and ‘obligation’. Between De Cive and Leviathan, Hobbes dropped the idea that natural law is strictly speaking law, but he continued to believe unwritten laws must form a part of any legal system. He was unable to explain how such a law could claim a legal status. His loyalty to the notion, in spite of all the trouble that it caused, is a sign of his belief that moral knowledge is readily accessible to all.

The responsibility to record civilian casualties

The responsibility to record civilian casualties in both armed conflict and civil disturbances must be an integral element of the responsibility to protect, particularly in the application of the just cause principles. The first part of this article examines the threshold issue of the possibility of large-scale civilian casualties which triggers the international community’s responsibility to react. The reports recommending the responsibility to protect emphasise the need to establish the actuality or risk of ‘large scale’ loss of life which is not possible in the current context without a civilian casualty recording structure. The second part of the article outlines the international legal obligation to record civilian casualties based on international humanitarian law and international human rights law. Thirdly, the responsibility to protect and the legal obligation to record casualties are brought together within the framework of Ban Ki-moon’s reports on implementation of the Responsibility to Protect. The fourth and final part of the article reviews the situations in Sri Lanka and Syria. Both states represent egregious examples of governments hiding the existence of casualties, resulting in paralysis within the international community. These situations establish, beyond doubt, that the national obligation to record civilian casualties must be part and parcel of the responsibility to protect.

Identifying and recording every casualty of armed conflict

This article discusses the international legal obligation to identify and record every casualty of armed conflict that finds its basis in the treaties and customs of international humanitarian law and international human rights law. The article applies the various facets of the legal obligation to the armed conflicts in Iraq and Sri Lanka and argues that the parties in these conflicts failed in their international legal responsibility to civilians.

The Article 51 reporting requirement for self-defense actions

This article examines one legal criterion for the exercise of the right of self-defense that has been significantly overlooked by commentators: the so-called “reporting requirement.” Article 51 of the United Nations (UN) Charter provides, inter alia, that “[m]easures taken by members in the exercise of this right of self-defense shall be immediately reported to the Security Council.” Although the requirement to report all self-defense actions to the Council is clearly set out in Article 51, the Charter offers no further guidance with regard to this obligation. Reference to the practice of states since the UN’s inception in 1945 is therefore essential to understanding the scope and nature of the reporting requirement. As such, this article is underpinned by an extensive original dataset of reporting practice covering the period from January 1, 1998 to December 31, 2013. We know from Article 51 that states “shall” report, but do they, and—if so—in what manner? What are the various implications of reporting, of failing to report, and of the way in which states report? How are reports used, and by whom? Most importantly, this article questions the ultimate value of states reporting their self-defense actions to the Security Council in modern interstate relations.

The regulation of cyber warfare under the jus ad bellum

This chapter evaluates the potential for legal regulation of the resort to cyber warfare between states under the ‘jus ad bellum’ (the law on the use of force). Debate in the literature has largely concerned whether cyber warfare falls within the scope of Article 2(4) UNC. The first part of this chapter sets out this debate. It then goes on to argue that the ‘Article 2(4) debate’ often misses the fact that an act of cyber warfare can be considered a breach of a different legal rule: the principle of non-intervention. The chapter further considers some of the issues in applying either the prohibition of the use of force or the principle of non-intervention to cyber warfare, and then concludes by arguing that the debate should be reoriented to focus on another existing international legal obligation: the duty to prevent cyber-attacks.

EU free movement law and the legal recognition of same-sex relationships: the case for mutual recognition

This article seeks to examine the cross-border legal recognition of same-sex relationships in the EU. Although the Member States maintain an exclusive competence in the field of family law and, thus, it is up to them to determine whether they will provide a legal status to same-sex couples within their territory, they need to exercise their powers in that field in a way that does not violate EU law. This, it is suggested, requires that Member States mutually recognize the legal status of same-sex couples and do not treat same-sex couples worse than opposite-sex couples, if the basis of the differentiation is, merely, the (homosexual) sexual orientation of the two spouses/partners. Nonetheless, the current legal framework does not make it clear that Member States are under such an obligation. The main argument of the article, therefore, is that the EU must adopt a more hands-on approach towards this issue.

Historielärares ämnesförståelse : Centrala begrepp i historielärares förståelse av skolämnet historia

This thesis focuses on four different aspects of history teachers’ comprehensiveunderstanding of the school subject history. More specifically, the aim is tostudy the comprehension of the subject as perceived by individual historyteachers. Special emphasis is placed on identifying the concepts of the field ofhistory that are central to the teachers’ understanding of the school subject history.The first aspect studied is the teachers’ biographical changes. In a life historyperspective it seems as if the teachers’ subject conception changes from anunproblematic and tentative approach to a more complex and confident understandingof the subject. The second aspect treated is the rationale behind theirgrasp of the purpose and content of the subject. Three major positions areidentified, namely educational (bildung) orientation, critical orientation, andidentity orientation.The third aspect studied is the teachers’ interpretation of a curriculumnew to them. The teachers placed the curriculum in the field of tension betweenan education policy position, emphasizing more precise knowledge, onthe one hand, and a history science position, emphasizing concepts of historicalconsciousness. The fourth aspect studied is five different conceptual tools displayedin the teachers’ remarks on having completed the teaching of a newcourse. These are termed ‘history as narrative’, ‘history as time-space’, ‘historyas explanation’, ‘history as perspective taking’, and ‘history as skills’At the general level the study shows not only that subject conception is ofimportance to the teachers’ understanding of their obligation as teachers of historybut also how it is formed and constantly transformed by many differentfactors. In this process it is clear that the concepts used by the teachers, althoughvariously defined, can be seen as specific to the school subject historyand essential to the construction of history as a school subject.

Emotioner och värdegrundsarbete : Om lärare, fostran och elever i en mångkulturell skola

This thesis explores aspects of teachers’ obligation to implement and discuss what are referred to in the Swedish national school curricula as “fundamental values” (“värdegrunden” in Swedish). The aim is to describe and analyze dilemmas in interpretations of and teachers’ work with these fundamental values. Four questions are related to this aim. The first addresses difficulties discussed in conversations between seven upper secondary teachers, during nine meetings over the course of one year. In these conversations the teachers reflected upon how to interpret the fundamental values in relation to their daily practice. The second question focuses on the considerable diversity of Swedish schools and examines the work of the teachers through a perspective of intersectionality. The third question concerns how Martha Nussbaum’s theory of emotions as judgments of value could be used for an understanding of the identified dilemmas. The fourth question focuses on ways in which the participating teachers’ discussions may contribute to a wider discussion about possible aims and circumstances of teachers’ work with the fundamental values. Chapter 2 introduces the theoretical framework of the study, Martha Nussbaum’s (2001) ethical thinking on emotions as judgments of value. She argues that emotions have four common cognitive components. They have (1) external objects, and are directed towards these objects. They are (2) intentional, reflecting a person’s particular point of view, his or her special way of beholding the object, and (3) consist of judgments, i.e. views of how things in the world are. According to Nussbaum’s Aristotelian ethics, emotions also (4) mirror the individual’s vision of what a good human life is like, and the vulnerability of it. The concept of eudaimonia, a fulfilled or flourishing life, is central. Chapter 3 focuses on ideas of ethnicity, and on the specific obligation mentioned in the curriculum of counteracting xenophobia and intolerance in a multicultural society. Chapter 4 discusses various aspects of the teachers’ thoughts on religiosity within Swedish society (often depicted as one of most secular in the world) and within the educational system that is non-denominational. Chapter 5 draws attention to different ways in which the teachers view and teach pupils about sexual orientation. Chapter 6 presents conclusions on potential advantages of and challenges involved in Nussbaum’s Aristotelian theory of emotions, when applied to teachers’ views of and practical work with the fundamental values described in the curriculum. One advantage is that emotions may be intellectually scrutinized and morally assessed, on grounds that are known beforehand and discussed in a democratic process. The non-productive division between emotions, on the one hand, and intellectual and moral capabilities, on the other, is transcended by Nussbaum’s theory. An important challenge is to reflect upon when to discuss the cognitive content of pupils’ emotions, and when it is appropriate to state what is right or wrong, and try to influence pupils accordingly. Keywords: Emotions, vulnerability, values education, religious education, teaching, Martha Nussbaum, ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation.

IAS 40 ur ett Nordenperspektiv : Jämförelse av regelverkets efterlevnad 2014 jämfört med 2009

Börsnoterade bolag ska i sin koncernredovisning redovisa enligt IFRS och förvaltningsfastigheter skall redovisas enligt IAS 40 Förvaltningsfastigheter. Detta examensarbete undersöker hur Nordiska börsnoterade bolag tillämpar vissa punkter inom IAS 40 i 2014 års redovisning jämfört med 2009 års redovisning. Syftet med undersökningen är att undersöka skillnader mellan de granskade företagens redovisning 2014 och 2009, med utgångspunkten i en tidigare publicerad undersökning (Hedlund & Ersson, 2011). Det som undersöks är om företagen använder samma värderingsmetod, om de informerar om hur värdering av förvaltningsfastigheter skett, om var i resultatrapporten de rapporterar justeringar av verkligt värde samt hur väl de lämnar upplysningar enligt IAS 40 punkt 75. Undersökningen har skett med en kvantitativ metod då det är årsredovisningar som granskats. Undersökt data är årsredovisningar från 2014 och 2009 för samma företag som granskats i den tidigare undersökningen. Några företag har utgått då de inte ingår i urvalsramen Nordiskt börsnoterat fastighetsbolag. Totalt granskades 14 stycken företag. Resultatet visar att efterlevnaden totalt sett är något bättre 2014 jämfört med den tidigare undersökningen. Till stor del beror det på urvalet där de företag som utgått var dåliga på att lämna upplysningar enligt IAS 40 i 2009 års redovisning. Sett till de företag som är med i båda undersökningarna är efterlevnaden likartad de jämförda åren. Det är få företag som lämnar upplysningar om begränsningar i rätten att sälja förvaltningsfastigheter, avtalsenliga förpliktelser att köpa eller hur de skiljer på rörelsefastigheter och förvaltningsfastigheter. Tolkningen kan då göras att det inte finns någon restriktion eller förpliktelse om det inte lämnas några sådana upplysningar. Om det är ett fastighetsbolag så kan det tolkas som att de inte har några rörelsefastigheter. Med dessa tolkningar blir efterlevnaden bland de undersökta företagen god.

Policy instruments to improve energy efficiency in buildings

The newly adopted energy efficiency directive (2012/27/EU) highlights the importance of energy efficiency in reaching the Union’s 2020 targets. The directive commits member states to defining national energy efficiency targets (art. 3), achieving yearly energy savings of 1.5% of the annual energy sales through the energy efficiency obligation scheme (art. 7), and providing a long-term strategy for the building sector that aims at a 3% refurbishment rate for public buildings (art. 4+5). Buildings currently account for 40% of energy use in most countries, putting them among the largest end-use sectors. This report takes a closer look at the best practices for implementing increasing energy efficiency in different regions and countries in Europe. The final aim is to identify some policy tools to be suggested to the region of Dalarna (Dalarna having been chosen as the pilot county in Sweden) as a means of implementing energy efficiency in the building sector. The final objective is to give analysts and decision-makers a better analytical foundation to explore future policy development in the area of buildings to be proposed and tested at the regional level in Dalarna and later at the national level in Sweden.

Processus stochastiques en finance (2ème partie)

Este documento é um texto didático destinado aos estudantes e pesquisadores em econometria e finanças. Baseia-se na experiência dos autores em cursos de pós-graduação na ULB, Bruxelles e na FGV IEPGE, Rio. Não há a pretensão de rigor matemático, e nem a de cobrir todas as aplicações financeiras da teoria dos processos estocásticos. Esta segunda parte discute as medidas equivalentes de martingale e o resultado de Girsanov, a sua aplicação ao modelo de Black-Scholes e a questão da avaliação de um call europeu.

Ações de responsabilidade social das empresas - a percepção do consumidor e sua influência na motivação de compra - um estudo de caso

The social responsibility is being very considered by the organizations and it has been exercising important impact in your strategies. More companies are confronting if with the obligation of incorporating, spontaneously or for pressure of groups and segments, the social responsibility to your profit objectives. Although some defend that the responsibility of the private companies in the public area is limited to the payment of taxes and the execution of the laws, they increase the arguments that your role cannot be restricted to that field, even for a subject of survival of the own companies. It is believed that the consumers passed to value behaviors in that sense and to prefer products of identified companies as ethics and socially responsible. Besides, it is believed that with that performance socially concemed, the company develops values and practices with positive effects on your productive chain and your collaborators, generating better results. The present study had for objective to verify the social actions practiced by O Boticário they are noticed by your consuming public to the point of to take them the purchase decision. The mischievous field research to effect allowed to conclude that such actions are not noticed by your consumers and, therefore, it doesn't motivate them the purchase of the products of the company

Valor percebido e o comportamento do consumidor de supermercado: um estudo exploratório em uma média cidade brasileira

Este estudo esteve envolvido com o desenvolvimento de um modelo para avaliação de valor de supermercado, sob a perspectiva do consumidor. O conceito de valor empregado neste trabalho parte da idéiade que um comportamento somente deve ser levado adiante caso o prazer decorrente seja superior à dor relacionada à obtenção desse prazer. Em Marketing, isto quer dizer que o consumo de determinado bem ou serviço exige do indivíduo uma certa quantidade de sacrifício (sacrifício percebido) para gozar dos benefícios associados (qualidade percebida). Em outras palavras, o consumidor precisa levar em consideração uma série de fatores numa situação de n avaliação e escolha. Para tanto, foram feitas duas consultas a clientes de supermercado do sexo feminino, pertencentes às classes A e B, na cidade de Campo Grande (MS), sendo uma qualitativa (n = 25) e outra quantitativa (n = 200). Os resultados indicam que valor percebido (VP) é uma função linear de qualidade percebida (QP), mas não de sacrifício percebido (SP). Portanto, duas das quatro hipóteses do estudo não foram confirmadas. Cerca de três quartos das mulheres preferem fazer ·uma compra pesada por mês e várias avulsas", aliás comportamento mais evidente nas faixa etárias mais elevadas. Para metade das entrevistadas, fazer compra em supermercado dá mais prazer do que trabalho. A maioria das mulheres que não trabalha fora sente prazer em fazer compra, ao contrário das mulheres que trabalham fora que acham isso uma obrigação. Por último, as mulheres que não trabalham fora, as de idade mais elevada e aquelas que consideram a compra um prazer, valorizam melhor o seu supermercado. O estudotambém permitiu verificar as características determinantes do supermercado que o cliente leva em consideração. Os atributos mais valorizados pelas entrevistadas foram substituiçao de produtos estragados e/ou vencidos e limpeza da loja. No entanto, elas usaram exposiçêo e organizaçao dos produtos, limpeza da loja e qualidade dos produtos hortifrutícolas para perceber valor. Os resultados dos testes de hipóteses parecem indicar que não é necessário o uso de variáveis de baixo nível de percepção (atributos de qualidade e de custo) para medir VP de supermercado. Os três atributos que permaneceram no modelo para explicar VP, através de QP (limpeza da loja, exposiçêo e organizaçao dos produtos e qualidade dos produtos hortifrutlcolas), o fazem moderadamente (R2 = 24,7%). Por outro lado, na avaliação global que as entrevistadas fizeram das lojas, QP (agora como variável independente) apresenta um coeficiente de explicação R 2 = 37,4%, resultadosuperior aoverificado quando a relação se deu com atributos específicos. Entretanto, se os clientes percebem valor apenas se valendo de QP (avaliação global), a formação da percepção de qualidade é feita usando sinais específicos associados ao produto "supermercado", sinais estes que incluem os três atributos que permaneceram no modelo. Assim, um modelo que inclui variáveis de percepção mais elevada (QP e SP) para inferir VP permite responder à seguinte questão: qual é a avaliação global que os clientes fazem de seu supermercado? Por outro lado, um modelo que julga VP a partir de atributos especificos (variáveis de baixo nível de percepção) deve responder à seguinte indagação: como se dá a percepção de valor do cliente em relação ao seu supermercado? Outros resultados são discutidos e também são apresentadas sugestões para futuras pesquisas e as principais implicações acadêmicas e empresariais .

Accountability de organizações do espaço público não-estatal: uma apreciação crítica da regulação brasileira

Esta dissertação examina as organizações do espaço público não-estatal e suas relações de accountability com o Estado e com outros atores da sociedade, com o propósito de avaliar as necessidades e possibilidades de regulação para a responsabilização de tais organizações no Brasil. A partir de parâmetros normativos e acadêmicos internacionais, a pesquisa busca apreciar em que medida a regulação brasileira das organizações do espaço público não-estatal assegura ― e o que é necessário para que assegure ― a accountability destas organizações perante o Estado e a sociedade, indicando os principais méritos e falhas do correspondente aparato regulatório e apresentando possibilidades para seu aprimoramento. Esta análise salienta que apesar de tais organizações terem numerosos deveres de demonstrar sua probidade administrativa e financeira e as atividades executadas, são pouquíssimas as obrigações de comprovar o cumprimento dos resultados pretendidos. Além disso, depreende-se que o Estado detém amplos poderes para fiscalizar tais organizações e aplicar-lhes sanções, mas a sociedade como um todo tem consideravelmente menos oportunidades de demandar sua accountability. Isto evidencia a importância de tais organizações ampliarem seus deveres de transparência e de assegurar a prevalência do interesse público, de modo a garantir a qualquer cidadão a prerrogativa de fiscalizar as organizações do espaço público não-estatal.

Uma análise crítica da efetividade das competências da ANATEL para execução da sua missão institucional

Este trabalho tem como objetivo analisar as competências da ANATEL, para verificar até que ponto a efetividade das suas competências impactam o alcance da sua missão institucional. Procura analisar se a tão propalada "independência", atribuída a essa organização, é respaldada pela efetividade de suas competências e pela introdução de componentes de flexibilidade e pela autonomia ao seu modelo de gestão, de modo a permitir que ela alcance a sua missão. A metodologia de trabalho incluiu a pesquisa documental e a realização de entrevistas semi-estruturadas com agentes que interagem com a organização. A efetividade das competências foi analisada de acordo com critérios pré-definidos, utilizando como apoio uma Matriz Multicritério, construída especificamente para este fim, tendo, em seguida, sido verificada a relação dessa efetividade com o alcance da missão da agência. A relevância deste estudo prende-se à ênfase dada à atuação das agências reguladoras brasileiras, cuja implantação tem suscitado múltiplos debates, que vão desde as questões de natureza jurídica àquelas relacionadas com os impactos de sua atuação. Justifica-se, também, pela oportunidade de analisar até que ponto a realidade das agências reguladoras encontra-se em consonância com as bases conceituais que lhe deram origem Os resultados obtidos levaram a conclusões que alertam os administradores das agências reguladoras; os responsáveis pela formulação das políticas públicas; e os responsáveis pelo controle das organizações públicas a reverem os referenciais adotados na gestão e no controle daquelas organizações. Quer, além disso, estimular o debate e a continuidade de pesquisas sobre o tema.