Factors affecting the establishment and dispersal of nymphs of Pristhesancus plagipennis Walker (Hemiptera : Reduviidae) when released onto soybean, cotton and sunflower crops

A problem with augmenting predatory bugs through mass release is the logistical difficulty of delivering nymphs onto the foliage of field crops. In this paper we examine postrelease establishment and dispersal of the nymphs of the predatory bug Pristhesancus plagipennis on soybean, cotton and sunflower in an effort to devise an appropriate strategy for field release. The effects of predator stadia and release rates on field establishment and within-crop-canopy dispersal after hand release were recorded in soybean, cotton and sunflower. Field establishment improved with the release of more-developed nymphs, with third instars providing the most appropriate compromise between field hardiness and rearing cost. Increased nymphal density at the point of release had little effect on nymphal dispersal throughout the crop canopy. The patterns of nymphal dispersal observed on the three crops suggest that crop-canopy architecture may have an effect on the ability of nymphs to spread out postrelease, as nymphs dispersed poorly in cotton and sunflower compared to soybean. To overcome poor dispersal of nymphs after release, a mechanical release method, where nymphs were mixed with vermiculite and delivered onto a target crop through a spinning disk fertiliser spreader, was tested, and provided similar nymph establishment rates and dispersal patterns as releasing nymphs individually by hand. The implications of nymph dispersal and field hardiness in regard to inundative field release techniques are discussed.

Behaviour of the black flying fox Pteropus alecto: 1. An ethogram of behaviour, and preliminary characterisation of mother-infant interactions

The black flying fox Pteropus alecto is one of four species of flying fox found on the Australian mainland. Little information exists about the specific behaviour of this species, and no framework for the study of its behaviour has yet been constructed. In the study reported here, two P alecto colonies were observed at two day roosts in South East Queensland, Australia, between 1998-2000. Observations focused on solitary and social actions in general and on mother-infant interactions in some detail and led to the construction of an ethogram that defines each action structurally and functionally, describing accompanying vocalisations where appropriate. Diurnal activity patterns of P. alecto throughout the year consisted predominantly of roosting, grooming and sleeping, and involved little social activity. Social interactions were largely restricted to the seasonal contexts of the birthing/rearing period of October to March and the subsequent courtship/mating season of February to April. In all, 74 behavioural units were defined with the aim of facilitating further research and the implementation of effective conservation strategies for the species.

Horizontal transmission of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli within groups of dairy calves

To examine the dissemination of Shiga-toxigenic Escherichia coli (STEC) within cattle groups, dairy calves on two farms utilizing different calf-rearing practices were exposed to a traceable STEC strain. Test strain dissemination differed significantly between farms, with a higher prevalence being associated with group penning. Pen floors and calf hides may be the main environmental mechanisms of transmission. Dairy calf husbandry represents a control point for reducing on-farm STEC prevalence.

Malaria vectors on Buka and Bougainville islands, Papua New Guinea

Anophelines were sampled from 82 locations oil Buka and Bougainville islands in Papua New Guinea by larval collections, carbon dioxide-baited Mosquito traps, and human biting catches. Anopheles farauti s.s. was collected in larval Surveys but infrequently in mosquito traps on both islands; on Buka Island this species was readily collected in human biting catches. Anopheles faraunti 2 was commonly collected in larval surveys on both islands however. it was not collected in either mosquito traps or human biting catches. Anopheles punctulatus was found only on Buka Island, where it was commonly collected as larvae, but rarely in human biting catches and mosquito traps. Anopheles lungae was collected Lis larvae from only I site on Bougainville. Anopheles farauti s.s. led consistently throughout the night (1900-0600 h): small peaks at midnight and dawn were not statistically significant. Of 1,156 An. farauti s.s. specimens examined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for malaria sporozoites. 20 were found to be positive: 12 were positive for Plasmodium falciparum and 8 were positive for P. vivax (247 variant = 5: 210 variant = 3). Anopheles farauti s.s. seems to be the major malaria vector on these islands, whereas An. punctulatus may play a minor role on Buka Island. Anophele farauti 2 is unlikely to be involved in malaria transmission on Buka or Bougainville islands.

Extensive multiple test centre evaluation of the VecTest malaria antigen panel assay

To determine which species and populations of Anopheles transmit malaria in any given situation, immunological assays for malaria sporozoite antigen can replace traditional microscopical examination of freshly dissected Anopheles. We developed a wicking assay for use with mosquitoes that identifies the presence or absence of specific peptide epitopes of circumsporozoite (CS) protein of Plasmodium falciparum and two strains of Plasmodium vivax (variants 210 and 247). The resulting assay (VecTest(TM) Malaria) is a rapid, one-step procedure using a 'dipstick' test strip capable of detecting and distinguishing between P. falciparum and P. vivax infections in mosquitoes. The objective of the present study was to test the efficacy, sensitivity, stability and field-user acceptability of this wicking dipstick assay. In collaboration with 16 test centres world-wide, we evaluated more than 40 000 units of this assay, comparing it to the standard CS ELISA. The 'VecTest(TM) Malaria' was found to show 92% sensitivity and 98.1% specificity, with 97.8% accuracy overall. In accelerated storage tests, the dipsticks remained stable for >15 weeks in dry conditions up to 45degreesC and in humid conditions up to 37degreesC. Evidently, this quick and easy dipstick test performs at an acceptable level of reliability and offers practical advantages for field workers needing to make rapid surveys of malaria vectors.

Enhancement or modulation of the vector competence of ochlerotatus vigilax (Diptera : Culicidae) for Ross River virus by temperature

Two different doses of Ross River virus (1111) were fed to Ochlerotatus vigilax (Skuse), the primary coastal vector in Australia; and blood engorged females were held at different temperatures up to 35 d. After ingesting 10(4.3) CCID50/Mosquito, mosquitoes reared at 18 and 25degreesC (and held at the same temperature) had higher body remnant and head and salivary gland titers than those held at 32degreesC, although infection rates were comparable. At 18, 25, and 32degreesC, respectively, virus was first detected in the salivary glands on days 3, 2, and 3. Based on a previously demonstrated 98.7% concordance between salivary gland infection and transmission, the extrinsic incubation periods were estimated as 5, 4, and 3 d, respectively, for these three temperatures. When Oc. vigilax reared at 18, 25, or 32degreesC were fed a lower dosage of 10(3.3) CCID50 RR/mosquito, and assayed after 7 d extrinsic incubation at these (or combinations of these) temperatures, infection rates and titers were similar. However, by 14 d, infection rates and titers of those reared and held at 18 and 32degreesC were significantly higher and lower, respectively. However, this process was reversible when the moderate 25degreesC was involved, and intermediate infection rates and titers resulted. These data indicate that for the strains of RR and Oc. vigilax used, rearing temperature is unimportant to vector competence in the field, and that ambient temperature variations will modulate or enhance detectable infection rates only after 7 d: extrinsic incubation. Because of the short duration of extrinsic incubation, however, this will do little to influence RR epidemiology, because by this time some Oc. vigilax could be seeking their third blood meal, the latter two being infectious.

Flavivirus isolations from mosquitoes collected from western Cape York Peninsula, Australia, 1999-2000

After the 1st appearance of Japanese encephalitis virus (JE) on mainland Australia in 1998, a study was undertaken to investigate whether JE had become established in enzootic transmission cycles on western Cape York Peninsula. Adult mosquitoes were collected during the late wet season from Kowanyama and Pormpuraaw in April 1999, and Pormpuraaw and Barr's Yard in April 2000. Despite processing 269,270 mosquitoes for virus isolation, no isolates of JE were obtained. However, other flaviviruses comprising Murray Valley encephalitis virus, Kunjin virus, Alfuy virus, and Kokobera virus (KOK) were isolated. Isolates of the alphaviruses Ross River virus, Barmah Forest virus (BF), and Sindbis virus (SIN) also were obtained. The majority (88%) of isolates were from members of the Culex sitiens subgroup. Single isolates of KOK, BF and SIN were obtained from Ochlerotatus vigilax, Oc. normanensis, and Anopheles bancroftii, respectively. The isolations of flaviviruses during the late wet season indicate that conditions were suitable for flavivirus activity in the area. No evidence was found to suggest that JE has become established in enzootic transmission cycles on western Cape York, although study sites and field trips were limited.

Trichogramma acacioi (Hymenoptera, Trichogrammatidae) parasitism capacity at different temperatures and factitious hosts

It was studied the parasitism capacity of Trichogramma acacioi on Anagasta kuehniella and Sitotroga cerealella eggs at different temperatures (15, 20, 25, 30 and 35 ± 1°C). The parasitism of T. acacioi varied with temperature and host. The highest parasitism (³80%) were observed during the first days after emergence in both hosts, at all tested temperatures. The accumulated parasitism varied with both host and temperature, being higher on A. kuehniella at 20°C, what shows good parasitoid species adaptation to this temperature. Thus, we conclude that the best host and best temperature to be used at mass-rearing of T. acacioi is A. kuehniella and 20ºC, respectively. Moreover, this Trichogramma species has great potential to be used in field releases at regions where average temperature is around 20ºC.

Environmental performance of aquaculture in Rondônia state, Brazil

The objective of this study was to analyze the environmental performance of aquaculture in the city of Colorado do Oeste, Rondônia State, Brazil. Fifteen fish farmers were interviewed. For data collection, structured interviews were carried out, using a questionnaire based on information supplied by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). The questionnaire considered 12 items, organized into three main topics: a) social and legal standards b) environmental standards c) standards of food safety and hygiene. The questionnaire considered 12 items, organized into three main topics: a) social and legal standards b) environmental standards c) standards of food safety and hygiene. Aquaculture in the city of Colorado do Oeste, Rondônia presents two fish production systems: extensive and semi-intensive. In the semi-intensive system, stocking rate was one fish per m3, on average; tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum), tilapias (Oreochromis spp.), pirarucu (Arapaima gigas) and pintado (Pseudoplatystoma spp.) were the species farmed at the largest number. The rate of water renewal was due to the greater availability of natural food in this system. Water renewal was constant in the ponds (1,500 liters per minute). In the semi-intensive system using dug ponds, alevins were stocked and fed during the entire rearing time with natural and exogenous food. The extensive system relied on the natural production of the pond, with stocking density limited by the production of natural food. The little renewal of water made the cultivation tank itself acted as a decantation lake, with the occurrence of oxidation and sedimentation of residual organic matter, consisting of feces, debris and organic fertilizer. Production of reduced effluent volume took place in the extensive system, compared to the cultivation area. In addition, there was high water turbidity, caused by high concentration of planktonic organisms, and low concentrations of dissolved oxygen in the water. Data showed that nine estates of the interviewed fish farmers had critical environmental performance (less than 30.0%). Six estates of fish farmers had bad environmental performance (between 30.0 and 50.0%) (Coefficient of sustentainability = green square x 100 ÷ Total Questions less the yellow squares)

Investigações sôbre o comportamento de formas adultas de mosquitos Silvestres no Estado de Sao Paulo, Brasil

Apresentaram-se os resultados das observações sobre o comportamento de formas adultas de Culicidae silvestres na área de Casa Grande, de zona de florestas primitivas situada na parte nordeste do Estado de São Paulo, Brasil. As investigações focalizaram os mosquitos de hábitos diurnos e crepusculares-noturnos, durante o período de 1963 a 1966. Foram obtidos dados concernentes à composição especifica, distribuição, ciclo anual da densidade, estratificação vertical na floresta e possíveis relações com o ambiente doméstico. A região estudada é considerada como bioma ou ecossistema do Anopheles (Kerteszia) cruzii e, dessa maneira, êsse mosquito compareceu de maneira predominante nas observações, merecendo por isso especial atenção. As outras espécies distribuiram-se predominantemente entre os Sabethini, além de alguns Culicini. No que concerne à domesticidade, o Anopheles cruzii apresentou-se como apreciável freqüentador das casas, seguido pelo Aedes serratus. Além disso, aquele anofelino mostrou-se acentuadamente acrodendrófilo, parecendo ser dotado de alguma ornitofilia.

Estudos sorológicos para pesquisa de anticorpos de arbovírus em população humana da região do Vale do Ribeira: IV - inquérito em escolares residentes no município de Iguape, SP (Brasil)

Relatam-se os resultados de inquérito sorológico para pesquisa de anticorpos de 17 arbovírus em 337 escolares de 6 a 14 anos de idade, residentes em quatro áreas, com diferentes características ecológicas, situadas no município de Iguape, Vale do Ribeira, do Estado de São Paulo (Brasil): 1 - zona urbana da cidade de Iguape; 2 - Rocio, bairro periférico com características rurais; 3 - zona de cultura extensiva de banana, na planície litorânea; 4 - zona de mata primitiva na região pré-serrana. Observou-se, em 8,31% dos investigados, a presença de anticorpos inibidores de hemaglutinação de arbovírus dos grupos antigênicos A, B, C, Bunyamwera, Simbu e Anopheles A. Evidenciou-se diferença significante na proporção dos soros positivos entre escolares residentes nas zonas de bananal e de mata (19,05% e 16,67%) e moradores na zona urbana e no bairro do Rocio (1,89% e 3,81%). Crianças sempre residentes na zona urbana de Iguape, sem hábito de freqüência a ambiente silvestre, apresentaram anticorpos neutralizantes para os vírus Caraparu e Rocio, sugerindo transmissão urbana desses agentes. Não há indícios sorológicos de infecções recentes causadas pelo flavivírus Rocio.

Estudo sobre malária e parasitoses intestinais em indígenas da tribo Nadëb-Maku, Estado do Amazonas, Brasil

Em março de 1983 detectou-se uma epidemia de malária por Plasmodium falciparum na tribu indígena Nadëb-Maku localizada às margens do Rio Uneiuxi, alto Rio Negro, no Estado do Amazonas (Brasil). Foram obtidas e examinadas para hematozoários amostras de sangue periférico de 76 indígenas. Vinte e sete (35,5%) dessas amostras estavam positivas para plasmódios. A infecção malárica foi tratada com Fansidar® (pirimetamina + sulfadoxina), mefloquina e/ou primaquina. A única espécie de anofelino coletada na aldeia durante o período da epidemia foi Anopheles mediopunctatus. Amostras de fezes obtidas de 49 indígenas foram examinadas para parasitas intestinais e 100% delas estavam positivas. A maioria dos indígenas estavam parasitada por mais de uma espécie de parasita.

Observações sobre atividade de mosquitos Culicidae em mata primitiva da encosta no Vale do Ribeira, São Paulo, Brasil

Relatam-se observações sobre o ciclo diário de atividade culicídea em ambiente primitivo da floresta perenifólia higrófila da encosta, do Sistema da Serra do Mar, no Vale do Ribeira, Estado de São Paulo, Brasil. Com periodicidade bimensal, e no período de dois anos, foram levadas a efeito coletas de vinte e cinco horas ininterruptas com o emprego de isca humana, bem como a utilização de armadilhas tipo Shannon operadas dentro e fora do ambiente florestal. Os resultados evidenciaram acentuada dominancia de An. cruzii, que se manteve durante todos os meses do ano mesmo naqueles de menor atividade culicídea. A influência crepuscular evidenciou-se pela nítida ocorrência de picos endocrepusculares para An. cruzii e An. bellator, seguidos imediatamente por outros, de menor intensidade, caracterizando assim ritmo que se propõe chamar de paracrepuscular. Ambas essas espécies de Kerteszia apresentaram atividade contínua para a isca humana, no período das 24 horas. Cx. sacchettae mostrou-se nitidamente noturna e com ritmo eocrepuscular. Ae. serratus e Ps. ferox revelaram-se essencialmente diurnos, com certa tendência ao ritmo paracrepuscular porém, até onde foi possível observar, de maneira incompleta e limitado ao crepúsculo matutino. A atividade ininterrupta, aliada à densidade e dominância de An. cruzii reafirma sua importância epidemiológica e a torna uma das feições que caracteriza o ambiente primitivo supracitado.

Observações sobre atividade de mosquitos Culicidae em matas primitivas da planície e perfis epidemiológicos de vários ambientes no Vale do Ribeira, São Paulo, Brasil

Observou-se o ciclo diário da atividade culicídea em ambiente primitivo das florestas perenifólias higrófilas da planície, compreendendo tanto a quaternária como a de transição, do Sistema da Serra do Mar, no Vale do Ribeira, Estado de São Paulo (Brasil). Em cada floresta foram realizadas capturas mensais de 25 horas ininterruptas com o emprego de isca humana, bem como a utilização de armadilha tipo Shannon operadas dentro e fora do ambiente florestal. Registrou-se a dominância de An. cruzii embora não de maneira tão acentuada quanto a verificada na mata da encosta, mas que se manteve durante todos os meses do ano. Juntamente com Ae. serratus e An. bellator, esse mosquito manteve-se continuamente em atividade, na isca humana, durante todo o período das 24 horas. Cx. sacchettae e Ps. ferox revelaram ciclo nictimeral caracteristicamente noturno para o primeiro e diurno para o segundo. A influência crepuscular evidenciou-se com a ocorrência de nítidos picos endocrepusculares para An. cruzii, An. bellator e o caráter eocrepuscular para Cx. sacchettae. Aquelas duas espécies de Kerteszia confirmaram a presença de ritmo paracrepuscular. O Ae. scapularis ocorreu nas coletas efetuadas no aberto, ou seja, no meio extraflorestal onde não se registrou a presença de Ae. serratus. Comparando-se os resultados destas observações com aqueles obtidos no ambiente modificado e na mata da encosta, pôde-se traçar o perfil culicídeo dos quatro locais notando-se a ocorrência de nítida sucessão na fauna, conseqüente às alterações introduzidas pelo homem. Ae. scapularis e Cx. ribeirensis mostraram capacidade de adaptação ao ambiente humano, com a conseqüente importância epidemiológica que desse fenômeno se pode deduzir.

Foco de malária no Estado de São Paulo (Brasil)

Assinala-se foco de malária instalado no período de fevereiro a abril de 1984, no Estado de São Paulo, Brasil. A transmissão teve início a partir de fonte de infecção desconhecida, em área periurbana do município de Panorama. Foram diagnosticados 10 casos, todos devidos a Plasmodium falciparum, variando o intervalo entre o aparecimento dos sintomas e o diagnóstico de 2 a 22 dias, tendo sido encontradas duas espécies transmissoras da malária: Anopheles (N) darlingi e Anopheles (N) albitarsis. São descritas a medidas que levaram à eliminação do foco destacando-se a detecção de um caso através da coleta de lâminas de investigação (gota espessa) entre 1236 moradores da área. O aparecimento desse foco permitiu avaliar o risco potencial da reintrodução da malária no Estado de São Paulo e intensificar as medidas de vigilância epidemiológica em áreas vulneráveis/receptivas.