The Plasmodium bottleneck: malaria parasite losses in the mosquito vector

Nearly one million people are killed every year by the malaria parasite Plasmodium. Although the disease-causing forms of the parasite exist only in the human blood, mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles are the obligate vector for transmission. Here, we review the parasite life cycle in the vector and highlight the human and mosquito contributions that limit malaria parasite development in the mosquito host. We address parasite killing in its mosquito host and bottlenecks in parasite numbers that might guide intervention strategies to prevent transmission.

The remarkable journey of adaptation of the Plasmodium falciparum malaria parasite to New World anopheline mosquitoes

Plasmodium falciparum originated in Africa, dispersed around the world as a result of human migration and had to adapt to several different indigenous anopheline mosquitoes. Anophelines from the New World are evolutionary distant form African ones and this probably resulted in a more stringent selection of Plasmodium as it adapted to these vectors. It is thought that Plasmodium has been genetically selected by some anopheline species through unknown mechanisms. The mosquito immune system can greatly limit infection and P. falciparum evolved a strategy to evade these responses, at least in part mediated by Pfs47, a highly polymorphic gene. We propose that adaptation of P. falciparum to new vectors may require evasion of their immune system. Parasites with a Pfs47 haplotype compatible with the indigenous mosquito vector would be able to survive and be transmitted. The mosquito antiplasmodial response could be an important determinant of P. falciparum population structure and could affect malaria transmission in the Americas.

The behaviour of mosquitoes in relation to humans under holed bednets: the evidence from experimental huts

The physical integrity of bednets is a concern of national malaria control programs, as it is a key factor in determining the rate of replacement of bednets. It is largely assumed that increased numbers of holes will result in a loss of protection of sleepers from potentially infective bites. Experimental hut studies are valuable in understanding mosquito behaviour indoors, particularly as it relates to blood feeding and mortality. This review summarises findings from experimental hut studies, focusing on two issues: (i) the effect of different numbers or sizes of holes in bednets and (ii) feeding behaviour and mortality with holed nets as compared with unholed nets. As might be expected, increasing numbers and area of holes resulted in increased blood feeding by mosquitoes on sleepers. However, the presence of holes did not generally have a large effect on the mortality of mosquitoes. Successfully entering a holed mosquito net does not necessarily mean that mosquitoes spend less time in contact with the net, which could explain the lack in differences in mortality. Further behavioural studies are necessary to understand mosquito behaviour around nets and the importance of holed nets on malaria transmission.

Effectiveness of Mosquito Magnet® trap in rural areas in the southeastern tropical Atlantic Forest

Traps are widely employed for sampling and monitoring mosquito populations for surveillance, ecological and fauna studies. Considering the importance of assessing other technologies for sampling mosquitoes, we addressed the effectiveness of Mosquito Magnet® Independence (MMI) in comparison with those of the CDC trap with CO2 and Lurex3® (CDC-A) and the CDC light trap (CDC-LT). Field collections were performed in a rural area within the Atlantic Forest biome, southeastern state of São Paulo, Brazil. The MMI sampled 53.84% of the total number of mosquitoes, the CDC-A (26.43%) and CDC-LT (19.73%). Results of the Pearson chi-squared test (χ2) showed a positive association between CDC-LT and species of Culicini and Uranotaeniini tribes. Additionally, our results suggested a positive association between CDC-A and representatives of the Culicini and Aedini tribes, whereas the MMI was positively associated with the Mansoniini and Sabethini as well as with Anophelinae species. The MMI sampled a greater proportion (78.27%) of individuals of Anopheles than either the CDC-LT (0.82%) or the CDC-A traps (20.91%). Results of the present study showed that MMI performed better than CDC-LT or CDC-A in sampling mosquitoes in large numbers, medically important species and assessing diversity parameters in rural southeastern Atlantic Forest.

Retrospective distribution of Trypanosoma cruzi I genotypes in Colombia

Trypanosoma cruziis the aetiological agent of Chagas disease, which affects approximately eight million people in the Americas. This parasite exhibits genetic variability, with at least six discrete typing units broadly distributed in the American continent. T. cruziI (TcI) shows remarkable genetic diversity; a genotype linked to human infections and a domestic cycle of transmission have recently been identified, hence, this strain was named TcIDom. The aim of this work was to describe the spatiotemporal distribution of TcI subpopulations across humans, insect vectors and mammalian reservoirs in Colombia by means of molecular typing targeting the spliced leader intergenic region of mini-exon gene. We analysed 101 TcI isolates and observed a distribution of sylvatic TcI in 70% and TcIDom in 30%. In humans, the ratio was sylvatic TcI in 60% and TcIDom in 40%. In mammal reservoirs, the distribution corresponded to sylvatic TcI in 96% and TcIDom in 4%. Among insect vectors, sylvatic TcI was observed in 48% and TcIDom in 52%. In conclusion, the circulation of TcIDom is emerging in Colombia and this genotype is still adapting to the domestic cycle of transmission. The epidemiological and clinical implications of these findings are discussed herein.

A sensitive, specific and reproducible real-time polymerase chain reaction method for detection of Plasmodium vivaxandPlasmodium falciparum infection in field-collected anophelines

We describe a simple method for detection of Plasmodium vivaxand Plasmodium falciparum infection in anophelines using a triplex TaqMan real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay (18S rRNA). We tested the assay on Anopheles darlingi and Anopheles stephensi colony mosquitoes fed withPlasmodium-infected blood meals and in duplicate on field collected An. darlingi. We compared the real-time PCR results of colony-infected and field collected An. darlingi, separately, to a conventional PCR method. We determined that a cytochromeb-PCR method was only 3.33% as sensitive and 93.38% as specific as our real-time PCR assay with field-collected samples. We demonstrate that this assay is sensitive, specific and reproducible.

New classification of natural breeding habitats for Neotropical anophelines in the Yanomami Indian Reserve, Amazon Region, Brazil and a new larval sampling methodology

Here we present the first in a series of articles about the ecology of immature stages of anophelines in the Brazilian Yanomami area. We propose a new larval habitat classification and a new larval sampling methodology. We also report some preliminary results illustrating the applicability of the methodology based on data collected in the Brazilian Amazon rainforest in a longitudinal study of two remote Yanomami communities, Parafuri and Toototobi. In these areas, we mapped and classified 112 natural breeding habitats located in low-order river systems based on their association with river flood pulses, seasonality and exposure to sun. Our classification rendered seven types of larval habitats: lakes associated with the river, which are subdivided into oxbow lakes and nonoxbow lakes, flooded areas associated with the river, flooded areas not associated with the river, rainfall pools, small forest streams, medium forest streams and rivers. The methodology for larval sampling was based on the accurate quantification of the effective breeding area, taking into account the area of the perimeter and subtypes of microenvironments present per larval habitat type using a laser range finder and a small portable inflatable boat. The new classification and new sampling methodology proposed herein may be useful in vector control programs.

Conserved chromosomal clustering of genes governed by chromatin regulators in Drosophila

BACKGROUND: The trithorax group (trxG) and Polycomb group (PcG) proteins are responsible for the maintenance of stable transcriptional patterns of many developmental regulators. They bind to specific regions of DNA and direct the post-translational modifications of histones, playing a role in the dynamics of chromatin structure. RESULTS: We have performed genome-wide expression studies of trx and ash2 mutants in Drosophila melanogaster. Using computational analysis of our microarray data, we have identified 25 clusters of genes potentially regulated by TRX. Most of these clusters consist of genes that encode structural proteins involved in cuticle formation. This organization appears to be a distinctive feature of the regulatory networks of TRX and other chromatin regulators, since we have observed the same arrangement in clusters after experiments performed with ASH2, as well as in experiments performed by others with NURF, dMyc, and ASH1. We have also found many of these clusters to be significantly conserved in D. simulans, D. yakuba, D. pseudoobscura and partially in Anopheles gambiae. CONCLUSION: The analysis of genes governed by chromatin regulators has led to the identification of clusters of functionally related genes conserved in other insect species, suggesting this chromosomal organization is biologically important. Moreover, our results indicate that TRX and other chromatin regulators may act globally on chromatin domains that contain transcriptionally co-regulated genes.

Liikkuva mittauslaboratorio Nuuskijan katupölyjärjestelmän jatkokehitys

Työn tarkoituksena oli kehittää liikkuvan mittausjärjestelmän Nuuskijan katupölyjärjestelmää. Katupöly on yksi suurimpia ilmalaatuongelmia pohjoismaissa keväisin. Alkuperäinen järjestelmä oli rakennettu vuoden 2004 lopulla ja 2005 alussa TEKESin rahoittamassa VIPEN -projektissa. Nyt esitetty kehitystyö liittyy ympäristöministeriön rahoittaman KAPU -projektiin, ja liikenne- ja viestintäministeriön rahoittaman VIEME -projektiin. Hankittiin, asennettiin, ja testattiin virtausanturi Nuuskijan katupölyn keruuputkistoa varten. Hankitulla kuumalankaperiaatteella toimivan anturin toimintaa verrattiin massavirtausputken tuloksiin, ja ne todettiin yhtäpitäviksi. Pääkeruuputkiston virtausta säätelevän pumpun ottomoottori poistettiin ja tilalle rakennettiin sähkömoottori hihnapyörineen. Näin saatiin meluttomampi, päästöttömämpi, kevyempi systeemi, jota on helppo käynnistää ja sammuttaa. Validointimittauksella selvitettiin, miten hyvin pääkeruuputkiston kartiomainen suutin ker��ä renkaan nostattaman pölypilven. Mittaustulokset osoittivat, että suutin ker��ä suurimman osan pölypilvestä, ja todettiin, että sen suhteen ei ole muutostarvetta. Tämän projektin jälkeen mittauskampanjoita on helpompaa suorittaa, ja mittaustuloksista tulee entistä tarkempia.

Assessement of Malaria Transmission in an Area with Very Low Mosquito Density

The increase in world travel in recent years, especially to and from areas where vector-borne diseases are endemic, has resulted in a substantial rise in imported cases of those diseases. In particular, malaria is a cause of concern. In those countries at the edge of its distribution, it can be difficult to distinguish between autochthonous and imported cases. However, distinguishing between the two is important because of the different allocation of resources to combat the disease that each requires. In general, observation of the various stages of parasite development in wild-caught female mosquitoes is considered evidence of autochthonous transmission. Observation of oocysts in the mosquito mid-gut testifies that mosquitoes are susceptible to infection but conclusions cannot be reached about their ability to complete the transmission cycle. Perhaps the best indication of autochthonous transmission is microscopic observation of sporozoites in mosquito salivary glands, since this detects parasites ready to be inoculated (BELER et al., 1990). Detection of circumsporozoite protein (CSP)(BURKOT, WILLIAMS & SCHNEIDER, 1984) in dry mosquito thoraxes, by Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) is also widely used to determine transmission, especially when large numbers of mosquitoes need to be processed. Such assays provide information about the parasite species infecting the mosquito (BURKOT & WIRTZ, 1986; WIRTZ et al., 1987; BELER et al., 1990).

Culicidae (Diptera, Culicomorpha) from the western Brazilian Amazon: Juami-Japurá Ecological Station

With 312 trap-hours of sampling effort, 1554 specimens of Culicidae (Diptera) were collected, using CDC and Malaise traps, in nine different locations along the Juami River, within the Juami-Japurá Ecological Station, Amazonas State, Brazil. A list of mosquito species with 54 taxa is presented, which includes three new distributional records for the state of Amazonas. The species found belong to the genera Anopheles, Aedeomyia, Aedes, Psorophora, Culex, Coquillettidia, Sabethes, Wyeomyia and Uranotaenia.

Bioecologia e controlo vectorial de Culicidade em Cabo Verde

As doenças transmitidas por vectores culicídeos (mosquitos) ocorrem em mais de 100 países do mundo e afectam cerca da metade da população mundial. A epidemiologia dessas doenças assenta numa tríade que envolve o agente etiológico (habitualmente parasitas ou vírus), o hospedeiro e o vector, não descurando a interacção existente entre estes e o ambiente, quer seja ele físico ou social. Em Cabo Verde, na sua história recente, estas doenças são representadas pela malária ou paludismo de carácter epidémico e marcadamente sazonal e pelo dengue, doença emergente que assolou pela primeira vez o país em 2009 (OMS, 2009), causando a maior epidemia de sempre na África Ocidental (Franco et al., 2010). A presença de mosquitos vectores destas duas doenças (respectivamente Anopheles arabiensis - membro do complexo Anopheles gambiae e Aedes aegypti) e de outros potenciais vectores, permite equacionar a possibilidade de emergência/reemergência doutras patologias, nomeadamente, das febres amarela e chikungunya, West Nile e a do Vale do Rift.

Caracterização mineralógica, potencial de reserva e sustentabilidade agrícola de alguns sítios florestais de eucalipto da região do Vale do Rio Doce (MG)

Foram estudados alguns solos da região do Vale do Rio Doce (MG) em 1991, nos municípios de Ipatinga, Nova Era e Guanhães, provenientes de áreas de reflorestamento de Eucalyptus grandis. Selecionaram-se oito sítios florestais com solos de diferentes classes taxonômicas, e uma detalhada caracterização mineralógica e avaliação do potencial de reserva de nutrientes foram desenvolvidas. Os solos estudados foram mineralogicamente classificados como: caulinítico não-sesquioxídicos (2 e 5); caulinítico-sesquioxídico (1); gibbsítico-sesquioxídicos (4, 6 e 7); hematítico (3) e gibbsítico (8). Os principais argilominerais e óxidos de ferro e alumínio presentes nesses solos são caulinita, gibbsita, hematita, goethita e maghemita. A reserva mineral de médio a longo prazo para potássio é praticamente inexistente, estando presente, embora com baixa magnitude, nos solos 2 e 5, na forma de micas e feldspatos. As relações Ca-trocável/Ca-total e Mg-trocável/Mg-total exprimem baixa capacidade de reposição desses nutrientes nos solos estudados. Sugere-se a adição de nutrientes de acordo com os níveis críticos exigidos na implantação e manutenção do ciclo do eucalipto, em virtude da ausência de sustentabilidade desses sítios florestais em termos de reserva de nutrientes a curto, médio e longo prazos.

Química e mineralogia de solos derivados de rochas do Grupo Bambuí no norte de Minas Gerais

Perfis de solos representativos do Distrito Agroindustrial do Jaíba, norte de Minas Gerais, foram descritos morfologicamente, tendo sido suas amostras coletadas e analisadas química, física e mineralogicamente, com o fim de obter informações que contribuam para sua melhor exploração agrícola. Embora provenientes, em sua quase totalidade, de calcário do grupo Bambuí, e com aparente homogeneidade fisiográfica (relevo plano e floresta caducifólia), os solos apresentaram grande diversidade nesses aspectos. Mineralogicamente, observaram-se a ilita e a caulinita como minerais comuns, esta última presente mesmo em Vertissolo e Rendzina, solos com expressiva quantidade de carbonatos livres. A presença de esmectita no Vertissolo, na Rendzina e no Cambissolo de argila de atividade alta indica que a escassez de chuva, a riqueza do material de origem e sua superficialidade em topografia plana dificultam a saída de sílica e bases do sistema, favorecendo a formação de esmectita. Tal mineralogia, associada à sazonalidade climática, parece responsável pelo fendilhamento expressivo desses solos no período seco. Os solos apresentam cores variadas: solos vermelhos e vermelho-amarelados, graças à presença de hematita e goethita, referem-se principalmente aos Latossolos situados em posições ligeiramente mais elevadas na paisagem, dispondo de melhor drenagem; amarelos e bruno-amarelados, normalmente situados em áreas mais deprimidas, que, aliados à superficialidade e massividade do material de origem, restringem a drenagem, favorecendo a gênese da goethita e levando à formação de concreções ferro-manganosas em quantidades expressivas; nestes ambientes, foram constatados Cambissolos de argila de atividade alta (Ta) e baixa (Tb), Vertissolos ou solos com características vérticas, também brunados, e Rendzina. A baixa relação Fe o/Fe d (ferro oxalato/ferro ditionito) revelou predomínio de óxidos mais cristalinos. Os solos eutróficos e epieutróficos (distróficos ou álicos), com baixos teores de Na e relevo dominantemente plano e suave-ondulado, confirmam a grande potencialidade agrícola da área, sobretudo sob irrigação. A diversidadade das características químicas, físicas e mineralógicas dos solos, entretanto, aponta variações de comportamento frente ao uso agrícola, indicando adequações diferenciadas de práticas de manejo.

Produtividade do cacaueiro em função de características do solo: II. características físico-morfológicas e alguns elementos extraídos pelo ataque sulfúrico

Com base na produtividade em sete anos (1989 a 1995) de 36 talhões produtivos de cacau, cultivados numa propriedade agrícola no sul da Bahia, foram obtidas as médias dos três anos mais e menos produtivos, correspondendo, respectivamente, a anos de maior e menor quantidade de chuvas. Essas produtividades foram relacionadas, por análise de trilha, com as características físico-morfológicas do solo (profundidade do horizonte A; cor, porosidade, densidades aparente e de partícula dos horizontes A e B; textura das camadas de 0-20 e 30-50 cm e presença de cascalho ou pedras até à profundidade de 50 cm) e com os teores totais de elementos (Ti, K, Cu, Fe, Mn e Zn), obtidos pelo ataque sulfúrico, na camada de 30-50 cm de profundidade. Os micronutrientes extraídos pelo ataque sulfúrico foram correlacionados com aqueles extraídos pelo Mehlich-1. Em geral, as características físicas explicaram melhor a produtividade dos anos mais secos, enquanto os teores de elementos extraídos pelo ataque sulfúrico correlacionaram-se melhor com a produtividade dos anos mais chuvosos. Os talhões mais produtivos tinham horizonte A mais profundo, solo mais poroso, com maiores teores de micronutrientes catiônicos e Ti e menor teor de K obtido pelo ataque sulfúrico. Em anos mais secos, os talhões mais produtivos foram aqueles que apresentavam solo com maior teor de argila e menores teores de silte e areia. A presença de cascalho até à profundidade de 50 cm e a cor dos horizontes do solo não se correlacionaram significativamente com a produtividade das plantas. Cobre, Mn e, ou, Zn, extraídos pelo ataque sulfúrico, indicaram solos de maior fertilidade natural em micronutrientes catiônicos para o cacaueiro.