Review of the Performance of Residential PV systems in France

The main objective of this paper is to review the state of the art of residential PV systems in France. This is done analyzing the operational data of 6868 installations. Three main questions are posed. How much energy do they produce? What level of performance is associated to their production? Which are the key parameters that most influence their quality? During the year 2010, the PV systems in France have produced a mean annual energy of 1163 kWh/kWp. As a whole, the orientation of PV generators causes energy productions to be some 7% inferior to optimally oriented PV systems. The mean Performance Ratio is 76% and the mean Performance Index is 85%. That is to say, the energy produced by a typical PV system in France is 15% inferior to the energy produced by a very high quality PV system. On average, the real power of the PV modules falls 4.9% below its corresponding nominal power announced on the manufacturer's datasheet. A brief analysis by PV modules technology has led to relevant observations about two technologies in particular. On the one hand, the PV systems equipped with heterojunction with intrinsic thin layer (HIT) modules show performances higher than average. On the other hand, the systems equipped with the copper indium (di)selenide (CIS) modules show a real power that is 16% lower than their nominal value.

Performance Analysis of 10,000 Residential PV Systems in France and Belgium

The main objective of this paper is to review the state of the art of residential PV systems in France and Belgium. This is done analyzing the operational data of 10650 PV systems (9657 located in France and 993 in Belgium). Three main questions are posed. How much energy do they produce? What level of performance is associated to their production? Which are the key parameters that most influence their quality? During the year 2010, the PV systems in France have produced a mean annual energy of 1163 kWh/kWp in France and 852 kWh/kWp in Belgium. As a whole, the orientation of PV generators causes energy productions to be some 7% inferior to optimally oriented PV systems. The mean Performance Ratio is 76% in France and 78% in Belgium, and the mean Performance Index is 85% in both countries. On average, the real power of the PV modules falls 4.9% below its corresponding nominal power announced on the manufacturer?s datasheet. A brief analysis by PV modules technology has lead to relevant observations about two technologies in particular. On the one hand, the PV systems equipped with Heterojunction with Intrinsic. Thin layer (HIT) modules show performances higher than average. On the other hand, the systems equipped with Copper Indium (di)Selenide (CIS) modules show a real power that is 16 % lower than their nominal value.

Non uniform target illumination in deflagration regime : refractive smoothing

Refractive smoothing of weak non-uniformities in the illumination of laser targets is analyzed, assuming absorption at the critical density and restricting conduction to a thin layer, and using results from thermal smoothing, which is uncoupled from the refraction. Magnetic effects are included. Non-uniformity wavelengths comparable to the thickness of the conduction layer are considered; efficient smoothing exists at both short and long wavelengths in this range. Thermal focusing could make the ablated plasma unstable.

Magnetic self-field effects on current collection by an ionospheric bare tether

It was recently suggested that the magnetic field created by the current of a bare tether strongly reduces its own electron-collection capability when a magnetic separatrix disconnecting ambient magnetized plasma from tether extends beyond its electric sheath. It is here shown that current reduction by the self-field depends on the ratio meterizing bias and current profiles along the tether (Lt tether length, characteristic length gauging ohmic effects) and on a new dimensionless number Ks involving ambient and tether parameters. Current reduction is weaker the lower Ks and L*/ Lt, which depend critically on the type of cross section: Ks varies as R5/3, h2/3R, and h2/3 1/4 width for wires, round tethers conductive only in a thin layer, and thin tapes, respectively; L* varies as R2/3 for wires and as h2/3 for tapes and round tethers conductive in a layer (R radius, h thickness). Self-field effects are fully negligible for the last two types of cross sections whatever the mode of operation. In practical efficient tether systems having L*/Lt low, maximum current reduction in case of wires is again negligible for power generation; for deorbiting, reduction is <1% for a 10 km tether and 15% for a 20 km tether. In the reboost mode there are no effects for Ks below some threshold; moderate effects may occur in practical but heavy reboost-wire systems that need no dedicated solar power.

Sheath vaporization of a monodisperse fuel-spray jet

The group vaporization of a monodisperse fuel-spray jet discharging into a hot coflowing gaseous stream is investigated for steady flow by numerical and asymptotic methods with a two-continua formulation used for the description of the gas and liquid phases. The jet is assumed to be slender and laminar, as occurs when the Reynolds number is moderately large, so that the boundary-layer form of the conservation equations can be employed in the analysis. Two dimensionless parameters are found to control the flow structure, namely the spray dilution parameter 1, defined as the mass of liquid fuel per unit mass of gas in the spray stream, and the group vaporization parameter e, defined as the ratio of the characteristic time of spray evolution due to droplet vaporization to the characteristic diffusion time across the jet. It is observed that, for the small values of e often encountered in applications, vaporization occurs only in a thin layer separating the spray from the outer droplet-free stream. This regime of sheath vaporization, which is controlled by heat conduction, is amenable to a simplified asymptotic description, independent of ε,in which the location of the vaporization layer is determined numerically as a free boundary in a parabolic problem involving matching of the separate solutions in the external streams, with appropriate jump conditions obtained from analysis of the quasi-steady vaporization front. Separate consideration of dilute and dense sprays, corresponding, respectively, to the asymptotic limits λ<<1 and λ>>1, enables simplified descriptions to be obtained for the different flow variables, including explicit analytic expressions for the spray penetration distance.

Entrainment Effects in Turbulent Boundary Layers

Esta tesis estudia el comportamiento de la región exterior de una capa límite turbulenta sin gradientes de presiones. Se ponen a prueba dos teorías relativamente bien establecidas. La teoría de semejanza para la pared supone que en el caso de haber una pared rugosa, el fluido sólo percibe el cambio en la fricción superficial que causa, y otros efectos secundarios quedarán confinados a una zona pegada a la pared. El consenso actual es que dicha teoría es aproximadamente cierta. En el extremo exterior de la capa límite existe una región producida por la interacción entre las estructuras turbulentas y el flujo irrotacional de la corriente libre llamada interfaz turbulenta/no turbulenta. La mayoría de los resultados al respecto sugieren la presencia de fuerzas de cortadura ligeramente más intensa, lo que la hace distinta al resto del flujo turbulento. Las propiedades de esa región probablemente cambien si la velocidad de crecimiento de la capa límite aumenta, algo que puede conseguirse aumentando la fricción en la pared. La rugosidad y la ingestión de masa están entonces relacionadas, y el comportamiento local de la interfaz turbulenta/no turbulenta puede explicar el motivo por el que las capas límite sobre paredes rugosas no se comportan como en el caso de tener paredes lisas precisamente en la zona exterior. Para estudiar las capas límite a números de Reynolds lo suficientemente elevados, se ha desarrollado un nuevo código de alta resolución para la simulación numérica directa de capas límite turbulentas sin gradiente de presión. Dicho código es capaz de simular capas límite en un intervalo de números de Reynolds entre ReT = 100 — 2000 manteniendo una buena escalabilidad hasta los dos millones de hilos en superordenadores de tipo Blue Gene/Q. Se ha guardado especial atención a la generación de condiciones de contorno a la entrada correctas. Los resultados obtenidos están en concordancia con los resultados previos, tanto en el caso de simulaciones como de experimentos. La interfaz turbulenta/no turbulenta de una capa límite se ha analizado usando un valor umbral del módulo de la vorticidad. Dicho umbral se considera un parámetro para analizar cada superficie obtenida de un contorno del módulo de la vorticidad. Se han encontrado dos regímenes distintos en función del umbral escogido con propiedades opuestas, separados por una transición topológica gradual. Las características geométricas de la zona escalan con o99 cuando u^/isdgg es la unidad de vorticidad. Las propiedades del íluido relativas a la posición del contorno de vorticidad han sido analizados para una serie de umbrales utilizando el campo de distancias esféricas, que puede obtenerse con independencia de la complejidad de la superficie de referencia. Las propiedades del fluido a una distancia dada del inerfaz también dependen del umbral de vorticidad, pero tienen características parecidas con independencia del número de Reynolds. La interacción entre la turbulencia y el flujo no turbulento se restringe a una zona muy fina con un espesor del orden de la escala de Kolmogorov local. Hacia el interior del flujo turbulento las propiedades son indistinguibles del resto de la capa límite. Se ha simulado una capa límite sin gradiente de presiones con una fuerza volumétrica cerca de la pared. La el forzado ha sido diseñado para aumentar la fricción en la pared sin introducir ningún efecto geométrico obvio. La simulación consta de dos dominios, un primer dominio más pequeño y a baja resolución que se encarga de generar condiciones de contorno correctas, y un segundo dominio mayor y a alta resolución donde se aplica el forzado. El estudio de los perfiles y los coeficientes de autocorrelación sugieren que los dos casos, el liso y el forzado, no colapsan más allá de la capa logarítmica por la complejidad geométrica de la zona intermitente, y por el hecho que la distancia a la pared no es una longitud característica. Los efectos causados por la geometría de la zona intermitente pueden evitarse utilizando el interfaz como referencia, y la distancia esférica para el análisis de sus propiedades. Las propiedades condicionadas del flujo escalan con 5QQ y u/uT, las dos únicas escalas contenidas en el modelo de semejanza de pared de Townsend, consistente con estos resultados. ABSTRACT This thesis studies the characteristics of the outer region of zero-pressure-gradient turbulent boundary layers at moderate Reynolds numbers. Two relatively established theories are put to test. The wall similarity theory states that with the presence of roughness, turbulent motion is mostly affected by the additional drag caused by the roughness, and that other secondary effects are restricted to a region very close to the wall. The consensus is that this theory is valid, but only as a first approximation. At the edge of the boundary layer there is a thin layer caused by the interaction between the turbulent eddies and the irroational fluid of the free stream, called turbulent/non-turbulent interface. The bulk of results about this layer suggest the presence of some localized shear, with properties that make it distinguishable from the rest of the turbulent flow. The properties of the interface are likely to change if the rate of spread of the turbulent boundary layer is amplified, an effect that is usually achieved by increasing the drag. Roughness and entrainment are therefore linked, and the local features of the turbulent/non-turbulent interface may explain the reason why rough-wall boundary layers deviate from the wall similarity theory precisely far from the wall. To study boundary layers at a higher Reynolds number, a new high-resolution code for the direct numerical simulation of a zero pressure gradient turbulent boundary layers over a flat plate has been developed. This code is able to simulate a wide range of Reynolds numbers from ReT =100 to 2000 while showing a linear weak scaling up to around two million threads in the BG/Q architecture. Special attention has been paid to the generation of proper inflow boundary conditions. The results are in good agreement with existing numerical and experimental data sets. The turbulent/non-turbulent interface of a boundary layer is analyzed by thresholding the vorticity magnitude field. The value of the threshold is considered a parameter in the analysis of the surfaces obtained from isocontours of the vorticity magnitude. Two different regimes for the surface can be distinguished depending on the threshold, with a gradual topological transition across which its geometrical properties change significantly. The width of the transition scales well with oQg when u^/udgg is used as a unit of vorticity. The properties of the flow relative to the position of the vorticity magnitude isocontour are analyzed within the same range of thresholds, using the ball distance field, which can be obtained regardless of the size of the domain and complexity of the interface. The properties of the flow at a given distance to the interface also depend on the threshold, but they are similar regardless of the Reynolds number. The interaction between the turbulent and the non-turbulent flow occurs in a thin layer with a thickness that scales with the Kolmogorov length. Deeper into the turbulent side, the properties are undistinguishable from the rest of the turbulent flow. A zero-pressure-gradient turbulent boundary layer with a volumetric near-wall forcing has been simulated. The forcing has been designed to increase the wall friction without introducing any obvious geometrical effect. The actual simulation is split in two domains, a smaller one in charge of the generation of correct inflow boundary conditions, and a second and larger one where the forcing is applied. The study of the one-point and twopoint statistics suggest that the forced and the smooth cases do not collapse beyond the logarithmic layer may be caused by the geometrical complexity of the intermittent region, and by the fact that the scaling with the wall-normal coordinate is no longer present. The geometrical effects can be avoided using the turbulent/non-turbulent interface as a reference frame, and the minimum distance respect to it. The conditional analysis of the vorticity field with the alternative reference frame recovers the scaling with 5QQ and v¡uT already present in the logarithmic layer, the only two length-scales allowed if Townsend’s wall similarity hypothesis is valid.

Submucosal gland secretions in airways from cystic fibrosis patients have normal [Na+] and pH but elevated viscosity

Fluid and macromolecule secretion by submucosal glands in mammalian airways is believed to be important in normal airway physiology and in the pathophysiology of cystic fibrosis (CF). An in situ fluorescence method was applied to measure the ionic composition and viscosity of freshly secreted fluid from airway glands. Fragments of human large airways obtained at the time of lung transplantation were mounted in a humidified perfusion chamber and the mucosal surface was covered by a thin layer of oil. Individual droplets of secreted fluid were microinjected with fluorescent indicators for measurement of [Na+], [Cl−], and pH by ratio imaging fluorescence microscopy and viscosity by fluorescence recovery after photobleaching. After carbachol stimulation, 0.1–0.5 μl of fluid accumulated in spherical droplets at gland orifices in ≈3–5 min. In gland fluid from normal human airways, [Na+] was 94 ± 8 mM, [Cl−] was 92 ± 12 mM, and pH was 6.97 ± 0.06 (SE, n = 7 humans, more than five glands studied per sample). Apparent fluid viscosity was 2.7 ± 0.3-fold greater than that of saline. Neither [Na+] nor pH differed in gland fluid from CF airways, but viscosity was significantly elevated by ≈2-fold compared to normal airways. These results represent the first direct measurements of ionic composition and viscosity in uncontaminated human gland secretions and indicate similar [Na+], [Cl−], and pH to that in the airway surface liquid. The elevated gland fluid viscosity in CF may be an important factor promoting bacterial colonization and airway disease.

Targeted replacement of the mycocerosic acid synthase gene in Mycobacterium bovis BCG produces a mutant that lacks mycosides.

A single gene (mas) encodes the multifunctional enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of very long chain multiple methyl branched fatty acids called mycocerosic acids that are present only in slow-growing pathogenic mycobacteria and are thought to be important for pathogenesis. To achieve a targeted disruption of mas, an internal 2-kb segment of this gene was replaced with approximately the same size hygromycin-resistance gene (hyg), such that hyg was flanked by 4.7- and 1.4-kb segments of mas. Transformation of Mycobacterium bovis BCG with this construct in a plasmid that cannot replicate in mycobacteria yielded hygromycin-resistant transformants. Screening of 38 such transformants by PCR revealed several transformants representing homologous recombination with single crossover and one with double crossover. With primers representing the hyg termini and those representing the mycobacterial genome segments outside that used to make the transformation construct, the double-crossover mutant yielded PCR products expected from either side of hyg. Gene replacement was further confirmed by the absence of the vector and the 2-kb segment of mas replaced by hyg from the genome of the mutant. Thin-layer and radio-gas chromatographic analyses of the lipids derived from [1-14C]propionate showed that the mutant was incapable of synthesizing mycocerosic acids and mycosides. Thus, homologous recombination with double crossover was achieved in a slow-growing mycobacterium with an intron-containing RecA. The resulting mas-disrupted mutant should allow testing of the postulated roles of mycosides in pathogenesis.

Asymmetric hybrid capacitors based on activated carbon and activated carbon fibre–PANI electrodes

Composites consisting of polyaniline (PANI) coatings inside the microporosity of an activated carbon fibre (ACF) were prepared by electrochemical and chemical methods. Electrochemical characterization of both composites points out that the electrodes with polyaniline show a higher capacitance than the pristine porous carbon electrode. These materials have been used to develop an asymmetric capacitor based on activated carbon (AC) as negative electrode and an ACF–PANI composite as positive electrode in H2SO4 solution as electrolyte. The presence of a thin layer of polyaniline inside the porosity of the activated carbon fibres avoids the oxidation of the carbon material and the oxygen evolution reaction is produced at more positive potentials. This capacitor was tested in a maximum cell voltage of 1.6 V and exhibited high energy densities, calculated for the unpackaged active materials, with values of 20 W h kg−1 and power densities of 2.1 kW kg−1 with excellent cycle lifetime (90% during the first 1000 cycles) and high coulombic efficiency.

Moisture Distribution in Partially Saturated Concrete Studied by Impedance Spectroscopy

The moisture content and its spatial distribution has a great influence on the durability properties of concrete structures. Several non-destructive techniques have been used for the determination of the total water content, but moisture distribution is difficult to determine. In this paper impedance spectroscopy is used to study the water distribution in concrete samples with controlled and homogeneously distributed moisture contents. The technique is suitable for the determination of water distribution inside the sample, using the appropriate equivalent circuits. It is shown that using the selected drying procedures there is no change in the solid phase of the samples, although the technique can only be used for the qualitative study of variations in the solid phase when samples are too thick. The results of this work show that for a wide range of concrete percentages of saturation, from full to 18 % saturation, practically all the pores keep at least a thin layer of electrolyte covering their walls, since the capacitance measurement results are practically independent of the saturation degree.

Hydraulic conductivity and experiments of sediment beds

In marine environments, sediments from different sources are stirred and dispersed, generating beds that are composed of mixed and layered sediments of differing grain sizes. Traditional engineering formulations used to predict erosion thresholds are however, generally for unimodal sediment distributions, and so may be inadequate for commonly occurring coastal sediments. We tested the transport behavior of deposited and mixed sediment beds consisting of a simplified two-grain fraction (silt (D50 = 55 µm) and sand (D50 = 300 µm)) in a laboratory-based annular flume with the objective of investigating the parameters controlling the stability of a sediment bed. To mimic recent deposition of particles following large storm events and the longer-term result of the incorporation of fines in coarse sediment, we designed two suites of experiments: (1) "the layering experiment": in which a sandy bed was covered by a thin layer of silt of varying thickness (0.2 - 3 mm; 0.5 - 3.7 wt %, dry weight in a layer 10 cm deep); and (2) "the mixing experiment" where the bed was composed of sand homogeneously mixed with small amounts of silt (0.07 - 0.7 wt %, dry weight). To initiate erosion and to detect a possible stabilizing effect in both settings, we increased the flow speeds in increments up to 0.30 m/s. Results showed that the sediment bed (or the underlying sand bed in the case of the layering experiment) stabilized with increasing silt composition. The increasing sediment stability was defined by a shift of the initial threshold conditions towards higher flow speeds, combined with, in the case of the mixed bed, decreasing erosion rates. Our results show that even extremely low concentrations of silt play a stabilizing role (1.4% silt (wt %) on a layered sediment bed of 10 cm thickness). In the case of a mixed sediment bed, 0.18% silt (wt %, in a sample of 10 cm depth) stabilized the bed. Both cases show that the depositional history of the sediment fractions can change the erosion characteristics of the seabed. These observations are summarized in a conceptual model that suggests that, in addition to the effect on surface roughness, silt stabilizes the sand bed by pore-space plugging and reducing the inflow in the bed, and hence increases the bed stability. Measurements of hydraulic conductivity on similar bed assemblages qualitatively supported this conclusion by showing that silt could decrease the permeability by up to 22% in the case of a layered bed and by up to 70% in the case of a mixed bed.

Ablative Pyrolysis of Beetle-killed Trees

Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Washington, 2016-06

Structure of a cellulose degrading bacterial community during anaerobic digestion

It is widely accepted that cellulose is the rate-limiting substrate in the anaerobic digestion of organic solid wastes and that cellulose solubilisation is largely mediated by surface attached bacteria. However, little is known about the identity or the ecophysiology of cellulolytic microorganisms from landfills and anaerobic digesters. The aim of this study was to investigate an enriched cellulolytic microbial community from an anaerobic batch reactor. Chemical oxygen demand balancing was used to calculate the cellulose solubilisation rate and the degree of cellulose solubilisation. Fluorescence in situ hybridisation (FISH) was used to assess the relative abundance and physical location of three groups of bacteria belonging to the Clostridium lineage of the Firmicutes that have been implicated as the dominant cellulose degraders in this system. Quantitation of the relative abundance using FISH showed that there were changes in the microbial community structure throughout the digestion. However, comparison of these results to the process data reveals that these changes had no impact on the cellulose solubilisation in the reactor. The rate of cellulose solubilisation was approximately stable for much of the digestion despite changes in the cellulolytic population. The solubilisation rate appears to be most strongly affected by the rate of surface area colonisation and the biofilm architecture with the accepted model of first order kinetics due to surface area limitation applying only when the cellulose particles are fully covered with a thin layer of cells. (c) 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Interaction of liquid copper with sintered iron compacts

Interaction of liquid copper with sintered iron is important in brazing, liquid phase sintering and infiltration. In brazing, the penetration of liquid copper into the pores is to be `avoided', whereas in infiltration processes it is `encouraged', and in liquid phase sintering it should be `controlled' so that optimum mechanical properties are achieved. The main objective of the research is to model the interaction by studying the effect of the process variables on the mechanisms of copper interaction in Fe-Cu and Fe-Cu-C systems. This involves both theoretical and experimental considerations. Dilatometric investigations at 950, 1125 and 1200oC, together with metallographic analyses were carried out to clarify the copper growth phenomenon. It is shown that penetration of liquid copper into the iron grain boundaries is the major cause of dimensional changes. Infiltration profiles revealed that copper penetration between the iron interparticle contact points and along iron grain boundaries is a rapid process. The extent of copper penetration depends on the dihedral angle. Large dihedral angles hinder, and small angles promote copper penetration into the grain boundaries. Dihedral angle analysis shows that the addition of 0.6wt.% graphite reduces the number of zero dihedral angle from 27 to 3o and increases the mean dihedral angle from 9.8 to 41.5o. The dihedral angle was lowest at 1125oC and then increased to higher values as the system approached its equilibrium condition. Elementally mixed (E.M.) Fe-Cu compacts showed a rapid expansion at the copper melting point. However, graphite additions reduced compact growth by increasing the mean dihedral angle. In order to reduce the copper growth phenomenon, iron powder was coated with a thin layer of copper by an immersion coating (I.C.) technique. The dilatometric curves revealed an overall shrinkage in the I.C. compacts compared to their corresponding E.M. compacts. Multiple regression models showed that temperature had the most effect on dimensional changes and density had the most contributing effect upon the copper penetration area in the infiltrated powder metallurgy compacts.

Mechanisms of transfer film formation on data recording heads

The increasing demand for high capacity data storage requires decreasing the head-to-tape gap and reducing the track width. A problem very often encountered is the development of adhesive debris on the heads at low humidity and high temperatures that can lead to an increase of space between the head and media, and thus a decrease in the playback signal. The influence of stains on the playback signal of reading heads is studied using RAW (Read After Write) tests and their influence on the wear of the heads by using indentation technique. The playback signal has been found to vary and the errors to increase as stains form a patchy pattern and grow in size to form a continuous layer. The indentation technique shows that stains reduce the wear rate of the heads. In addition, the wear tends to be more pronounced at the leading edge of the head compared to the trailing one. Chemical analysis of the stains using ferrite samples in conjunction with MP (metal particulate) tapes shows that stains contain iron particles and polymeric binder transferred from the MP tape. The chemical anchors in the binder used to grip the iron particles now react with the ferrite surface to create strong chemical bonds. At high humidity, a thin layer of iron oxyhydroxide forms on the surface of the ferrite. This soft material increases the wear rate and so reduces the amount of stain present on the heads. The stability of the binder under high humidity and under high temperature as well as the chemical reactions that might occur on the ferrite poles of the heads influences the dynamic behaviour of stains. A model of stain formation taking into account the channels of binder degradation and evolution upon different environmental conditions is proposed.