Examining corporate governance disclosures of listed companies in Fiji

In 2009, the Capital Markets Development Authority (CMDA) - Fiji’s capital market regulator - introduced the Code of Corporate Governance (the Code). The Code is ‘principle-based’ and requires companies listed on the South Pacific Stock Exchange (SPSE) and the financial intermediaries to disclose their compliance with the Code’s principles. While compliance with the Code is mandatory, the nature and extent of disclosure is at the discretion of the complying entities. Agency theory and signalling theory suggest that firms with higher expected levels of agency costs will provide greater levels of voluntary disclosures as signals of strong corporate governance. Thus, the study seeks to test these theories by examining the heterogeneity of corporate governance disclosures by firms listed on SPSE, and determining the characteristics of firms that provide similar levels of disclosures. We conducted a content analysis of corporate governance disclosures on the annual reports of firms from 2008-2012. The study finds that large, non-family owned firms with high levels of shareholder dispersion provide greater quantity and higher quality corporate governance disclosures. For firms that are relatively smaller, family owned and have low levels of shareholder dispersion, the quantity and quality of corporate governance disclosures are much lower. Some of these firms provide boilerplate disclosures with minimal changes in the following years. These findings support the propositions of agency and signalling theory, which suggest that firms with higher separation between agents and principals will provide more voluntary disclosures to reduce expected agency costs transfers. Semi-structured interviews conducted with key stakeholders further reinforce the findings. The interviews also reveal that complying entities positively perceive the introduction of the Code. Furthermore, while compliance with Code brought about additional costs, they believed that most of these costs were minimal and one-off, and the benefits of greater corporate disclosure to improve user decision making outweighed the costs. The study contributes to the literature as it provides insight into the experience of a small capital market with introducing a ‘principle-based’ Code that attempts to encourage corporate governance practices through enhanced disclosure. The study also assists policy makers better understand complying entities’ motivations for compliance and the extent of compliance.

Clinicopathological relevance of BRAF mutations in human cancer

BRAF represents one of the most frequently mutated protein kinase genes in human tumours. The mutation is commonly tested in pathology practice. BRAF mutation is seen in melanoma, papillary thyroid carcinoma (including papillary thyroid carcinoma arising from ovarian teratoma), ovarian serous tumours, colorectal carcinoma, gliomas, hepatobiliary carcinomas and hairy cell leukaemia. In these cancers, various genetic aberrations of the BRAF proto-oncogene, such as different point mutations and chromosomal rearrangements, have been reported. The most common mutation, BRAF V600E, can be detected by DNA sequencing and immunohistochemistry on formalin fixed, paraffin embedded tumour tissue. Detection of BRAF V600E mutation has the potential for clinical use as a diagnostic and prognostic marker. In addition, a great deal of research effort has been spent in strategies inhibiting its activity. Indeed, recent clinical trials involving BRAF selective inhibitors exhibited promising response rates in metastatic melanoma patients. Clinical trials are underway for other cancers. However, cutaneous side effects of treatment have been reported and therapeutic response to cancer is short-lived due to the emergence of several resistance mechanisms. In this review, we give an update on the clinical pathological relevance of BRAF mutation in cancer. It is hoped that the review will enhance the direction of future research and assist in more effective use of the knowledge of BRAF mutation in clinical practice.

Clinical impacts of mammalian target of rapamycin expression in human colorectal cancers

This study investigated the clinicopathologic roles of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) expression and its relationship to carcinogenesis and tumor progression in a colorectal adenoma-adenocarcinoma model. Two colon cancer cell lines with different pathologic stages (SW480 and SW48) and 1 normal colonic epithelial cell line (FHC) were used, in addition to 119 colorectal adenocarcinomas and 32 adenomas. mTOR expression profiles at messenger RNA (mRNA) and protein levels were investigated in the cells and tissues using real-time quantification polymerase chain reaction and immunohistochemistry. The findings were correlated with the clinicopathologic features of the tumors. The colon cell line from stage III cancer (SW48) showed higher expression of mTOR mRNA than that from stage II cancer (SW480). At the tissue level, mTOR showed higher mRNA and protein expression in colorectal carcinoma than in adenoma. The mRNA and protein expression was correlated with each other in approximately one-third of the carcinomas and adenomas. High levels of mTOR mRNA expression were noted more in carcinoma or adenoma arising from the distal portion of the large intestine (P = .025 and .019, respectively). Within the colorectal cancer population, a high level of expression of mTOR mRNA was related to the presence of lymph node metastases (P = .031), advanced pathologic stage (P = .05), and presence of persistent disease or tumor recurrence (P = .035). To conclude, the study has indicated that mTOR is likely to be involved in the development and progression of colorectal cancer and is linked to cancer initiation, invasiveness, and progression.

Geographical distribution of human Schistosoma japonicum infection in the Philippines : tools to support disease control and further elimination

S. japonicum infection is believed to be endemic in 28 of the 80 provinces of the Philippines and the most recent data on schistosomiasis prevalence have shown considerable variability between provinces. In order to increase the efficient allocation of parasitic disease control resources in the country, we aimed to describe the small scale spatial variation in S. japonicum prevalence across the Philippines, quantify the role of the physical environment in driving the spatial variation of S. japonicum, and develop a predictive risk map of S. japonicum infection. Data on S. japonicum infection from 35,754 individuals across the country were geo-located at the barangay level and included in the analysis. The analysis was then stratified geographically for Luzon, the Visayas and Mindanao. Zero-inflated binomial Bayesian geostatistical models of S. japonicum prevalence were developed and diagnostic uncertainty was incorporated. Results of the analysis show that in the three regions, males and individuals aged ≥ 20 years had significantly higher prevalence of S. japonicum compared with females and children <5 years. The role of the environmental variables differed between regions of the Philippines. S. japonicum infection was widespread in the Visayas whereas it was much more focal in Luzon and Mindanao. This analysis revealed significant spatial variation in prevalence of S. japonicum infection in the Philippines. This suggests that a spatially targeted approach to schistosomiasis interventions, including mass drug administration, is warranted. When financially possible, additional schistosomiasis surveys should be prioritized to areas identified to be at high risk, but which were underrepresented in our dataset.

Assessment of Geogenic Contaminants in Water Co-Produced with Coal Seam Gas Extraction in Queensland, Australia : Implications for Human Health Risk

Organic compounds in Australian coal seam gas produced water (CSG water) are poorly understood despite their environmental contamination potential. In this study, the presence of some organic substances is identified from government-held CSG water-quality data from the Bowen and Surat Basins, Queensland. These records revealed the presence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in 27% of samples of CSG water from the Walloon Coal Measures at concentrations <1 µg/L, and it is likely these compounds leached from in situ coals. PAHs identified from wells include naphthalene, phenanthrene, chrysene and dibenz[a,h]anthracene. In addition, the likelihood of coal-derived organic compounds leaching to groundwater is assessed by undertaking toxicity leaching experiments using coal rank and water chemistry as variables. These tests suggest higher molecular weight PAHs (including benzo[a]pyrene) leach from higher rank coals, whereas lower molecular weight PAHs leach at greater concentrations from lower rank coal. Some of the identified organic compounds have carcinogenic or health risk potential, but they are unlikely to be acutely toxic at the observed concentrations which are almost negligible (largely due to the hydrophobicity of such compounds). Hence, this study will be useful to practitioners assessing CSG water related environmental and health risk.

Effect of the increase in "alcopops" tax on alcohol-related harms in young people : a controlled interrupted time series

Objective: To measure alcohol-related harms to the health of young people presenting to emergency departments (EDs) of Gold Coast public hospitals before and after the increase in the federal government "alcopops" tax in 2008. Design, setting and participants: Interrupted time series analysis over 5 years (28 April 2005 to 27 April 2010) of 15-29-year-olds presenting to EDs with alcohol-related harms compared with presentations of selected control groups. Main outcome measures: Proportion of 15-29-year-olds presenting to EDs with alcohol-related harms compared with (i) 30-49-year-olds with alcohol-related harms, (ii)15-29-year-olds with asthma or appendicitis, and (iii) 15-29-yearolds with any non-alcohol and non-injury related ED presentation. Results: Over a third of 15-29-year-olds presented to ED with alcohol-related conditions, as opposed to around a quarter for all other age groups. There was no significant decrease in alcohol-related ED presentations of 15-29-year-olds compared with any of the control groups after the increase in the tax. We found similar results for males and females, narrow and broad definitions of alcoholrelated harms, under-19s, and visitors to and residents of the Gold Coast. Conclusions: The increase in the tax on al copops was not associated with any reduction in alcohol-related harms in this population in a unique tourist and holiday region. A more comprehensive approach to reducing alcohol harms in young people is needed.

A loss of bioscience knowledge in nursing students

Background: Knowledge of the human biosciences is fundamental to the development of competent nurse practitioners (Smales, 2010) with the requisite knowledge and skills, necessary for high quality patient care and good patient outcomes (Logan and Angel, 2011). Many of these students study bioscience units which cover topics in anatomy, physiology, pathophysiology and microbiology. Studies of science recall in general and medical education, report up to 33% loss of knowledge in the first year which declines to 50% in the subsequent year (Custers, 2010). Objectives: The objectives were to test the recall of bioscience knowledge by nursing students and to ascertain their perceptions of the testing. Questions explored: What would the results be for multiple choice questions in fundamental microbiology and gastrointestinal anatomy and physiology (A&P) undertaken by nursing students 4, 9 and 16 months after their first bioscience exam on these topics? Would pre-warning the students of a microbiology quiz and not a gastrointestinal A&P quiz affect the findings? How would the students respond to the testing when surveyed? Recall results: The nursing students performed better in the final exam on gastrointestinal A&P than on fundamental microbiology. There was an approximate 20% loss in knowledge of gastrointestinal A&P after 4 months and this did not change significantly over the next 12 months. Although there was an improved performance in microbiology quizzes after 4 months, there was no significant difference in results over the next 12 months. Survey results: More than 50% of students thought the testing helped them focus for the lectures and made them aware they had some pre-knowledge of the lecture topics. Discussion: Although there was a loss of knowledge of gastrointestinal A&P, it appears that warning the students about the microbiology quiz may have helped their recall. The majority of students valued the testing as a useful learning exercise. References: Custers, E. J. F. M. (2010). Long-term retention of basic science knowledge: a review study. Advances in Health Science Education, 15, 109-128. Smales, K. (2010). Learning and applying biosciences to clinical practice in nursing. Nursing Standard, 24(33), 35-39. Logan, P.A., & Angel, L. (2011). Nursing as a scientific undertaking and the intersection with science in undergraduate studies: implications for nursing management. Journal of Nursing Management, 19(3), 407-417.

Markers of genetic susceptibility in human environmental hygiene and toxicology : the role of selected CYP, NAT and GST genes

Inherited genetic traits co-determine the susceptibility of an individual to a toxic chemical. Special emphasis has been put on individual responses to environmental and industrial carcinogens, but other chronic diseases are of increasing interest. Polymorphisms of relevant xenobiotic metabolising enzymes may be used as toxicological susceptibility markers. A growing number of genes encoding enzymes involved in biotransformation of toxicants and in cellular defence against toxicant-induced damage to the cells has been identified and cloned, leading to increased knowledge of allelic variants of genes and genetic defects that may result in a differential susceptibility toward environmental toxicants. "Low penetrating" polymorphisms in metabolism genes tend to be much more common in the population than allelic variants of "high penetrating" cancer genes, and are therefore of considerable importance from a public health point of view. Positive associations between cancer and CYP1A1 alleles, in particular the *2C I462V allele, were found for tissues following the aerodigestive tract. Again, in most cases, the effect of the variant CYP1A1 allele becomes apparent or clearer in connection with the GSTM1 null allele. The CYP1B1 codon 432 polymorphism (CYP1B1*3) has been identified as a susceptibility factor in smoking-related head-and-neck squameous cell cancer. The impact of this polymorphic variant of CYP1B1 on cancer risk was also reflected by an association with the frequency of somatic mutations of the p53 gene. Combined genotype analysis of CYP1B1 and the glutathione transferases GSTM1 or GSTT1 has also pointed to interactive effects. Of particular interest for the industrial and environmental field is the isozyme CYP2E1. Several genotypes of this isozyme have been characterised which seem to be associated with different levels of expression of enzyme activity. The acetylator status for NAT2 can be determined by genotyping or by phenotyping. In the pathogenesis of human bladder cancer due to occupational exposure to "classical" aromatic amines (benzidine, 4-aminodiphenyl, 1-naphthylamine) acetylation by NAT2 is regarded as a detoxication step. Interestingly, the underlying European findings of a higher susceptibility of slow acetylators towards aromatic amines are in contrast to findings in Chinese workers occupationally exposed to aromatic amines which points to different mechanisms of susceptibility between European and Chinese populations. Regarding human bladder cancer, the hypothesis has been put forward that genetic polymorphism of GSTM1 might be linked with the occurrence of this tumour type. This supports the hypothesis that exposure to PAH might causally be involved in urothelial cancers. The human polymorphic GST catalysing conjugation of halomethanes, dihalomethanes, ethylene oxide and a number of other industrial compounds could be characterised as a class theta enzyme (GSTT1) by means of molecular biology. "Conjugator" and "non-conjugator" phenotypes are coincident with the presence and absence of the GSTT1 gene. There are wide variations in the frequencies of GSTT1 deletion (GSTT1 *0/0) among different ethnicities. Human phenotyping is facilitated by the GST activity towards methyl bromide or ethylene oxide in erythrocytes which is representative of the metabolic GSTT1 competence of the entire organism. Inter-individual variations in xenobiotic metabolism capacities may be due to polymorphisms of the genes coding for the enzymes themselves or of the genes coding for the receptors or transcription factors which regulate the expression of the enzymes. Also, polymorphisms in several regions of genes may cause altered ligand affinity, transactivation activity or expression levels of the receptor subsequently influencing the expression of the downstream target genes. Studies of individual susceptibility to toxicants and gene-environment interaction are now emerging as an important component of molecular epidemiology.

Distribution of methylene chloride in human blood

Methylene chloride (dichloromethane) is widely used as a solvent for stripping of paint, as industrial cleaning agent, for coating of pills in the pharmaceutical industry, and in the decaffeination of coffee. There is “sufficient evidence for the carcinogenicity” of methylene chloride in animals and “inadequate evidence for its carcinogenity in humans”, according to IARC (IARC 1987; CEC 1990).

A comparative study of the proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of human periodontal ligament cells cultured on β-TCP ceramics and demineralized bone matrix with or without osteogenic inducers in vitro

The repair of bone defects that result from periodontal diseases remains a clinical challenge for periodontal therapy. β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) ceramics are biodegradable inorganic bone substitutes with inorganic components that are similar to those of bone. Demineralized bone matrix (DBM) is an acid-extracted organic matrix derived from bone sources that consists of the collagen and matrix proteins of bone. A few studies have documented the effects of DBM on the proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of human periodontal ligament cells (hPDLCs). The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of inorganic and organic elements of bone on the proliferation and osteogenic differentiation of hPDLCs using three-dimensional porous β-TCP ceramics and DBM with or without osteogenic inducers. Primary hPDLCs were isolated from human periodontal ligaments. The proliferation of the hPDLCs on the scaffolds in the growth culture medium was examined using a Cell‑Counting kit‑8 (CCK-8) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity and the osteogenic differentiation of the hPDLCs cultured on the β-TCP ceramics and DBM were examined in both the growth culture medium and osteogenic culture medium. Specific osteogenic differentiation markers were examined using reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). SEM images revealed that the cells on the β-TCP were spindle-shaped and much more spread out compared with the cells on the DBM surfaces. There were no significant differences observed in cell proliferation between the β-TCP ceramics and the DBM scaffolds. Compared with the cells that were cultured on β-TCP ceramics, the ALP activity, as well as the Runx2 and osteocalcin (OCN) mRNA levels in the hPDLCs cultured on DBM were significantly enhanced both in the growth culture medium and the osteogenic culture medium. The organic elements of bone may exhibit greater osteogenic differentiation effects on hPDLCs than the inorganic elements.

Transplantation of human amnion epithelial cells reduces hepatic fibrosis in immunocompetent CCl4-treated mice

Chronic liver injury and inflammation lead to hepatic fibrosis, cirrhosis, and liver failure. Embryonic and mesenchymal stem cells have been shown to reduce experimental liver fibrosis but have potential limitations, including the formation of dysplastic precursors, tumors, and profibrogenic cells. Other stem-like cells may reduce hepatic inflammation and fibrosis without tumor and profibrogenic cell formation. To test this hypothesis we transplanted human amnion epithelial cells (hAEC), isolated from term delivered placenta, into immunocompetent C57/BL6 mice at week 2 of a 4-week regimen of carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) exposure to induce liver fibrosis. Two weeks following hAEC infusion, intact cells expressing the human-specific markers inner mitochondrial membrane protein and human leukocyte antigen-G were found in mouse liver without evidence of host rejection of the transplanted cells. Human albumin, known to be produced by hAEC, was detected in sera of hAEC-treated mice. Human DNA was detected in mouse liver and also spleen, lungs, and heart of some animals. Following hAEC transplantation, CCl4-treated animals showed decreased serum ALT levels and reduced hepatocyte apoptosis, compared to controls. hAEC-treated mouse liver had lower TNF-α and IL-6 protein levels and higher IL-10 compared to animals given CCl4 alone. Compared to CCl4 controls, hAEC-treated mice showed fewer activated collagen-producing hepatic stellate cells and less fibrosis area and collagen content. Reduced hepatic TGF-β levels in conjunction with a twofold increase in the active form of the collagen-degrading enzyme matrix metalloproteinase-2 in hAEC-treated mice compared to CCl4 controls may account for the reduction in fibrosis. hAEC transplantation into immunocompetent mice leads to cell engraftment, reduced hepatocyte apoptosis, and decreased hepatic inflammation and fibrosis.

Triphasic pattern in the ex vivo response of human proliferative phase endometrium to oestrogens

The aim of this study was to evaluate the ex vivo oestrogen responsiveness of human proliferative phase endometrium using short-term explant cultures. The effects of oestrogen (17beta-E2) on proliferation and the expression of oestrogen-responsive genes known to be involved in regulating endometrial function were evaluated. Three distinct response patterns could be distinguished: (1) the menstrual (M) phase pattern (cycle days 2-5), which is characterised by a complete lack in the proliferative response to 17beta-E2, while an increased expression of AR (2.6-fold, P<0.01), PR (2.7-fold, P<0.01) and COX-2 (3.5-fold, P<0.01) at the mRNA level was observed and a similar upregulation was also found for AR, PR and COX-2 at the protein level; (2) the early proliferative (EP) phase pattern (cycle days 6-10) with 17beta-E2 enhanced proliferation in the stroma (1.7-fold, P<0.05), whereas the expression of AR, PR and COX-2 were not affected at the mRNA and protein levels and ER-a mRNA and protein levels were significantly reduced by 17beta-E2; (3) the late proliferative (LP) phase pattern (cycle days 11-14), which is characterised by a moderate stimulation of proliferation (1.4-fold, P<0.05) and PR mRNA expression (1.7-fold, P<0.01) by 17beta-E2. In conclusion, three distinct response patterns to 17beta-E2 could be identified with respect to proliferation and the expression of known oestrogen-responsive genes in human proliferative phase endometrium explant cultures.

Incorporating human-factors in car-following models : a review of recent developments and research needs

Over the past decades there has been a considerable development in the modeling of car-following (CF) behavior as a result of research undertaken by both traffic engineers and traffic psychologists. While traffic engineers seek to understand the behavior of a traffic stream, traffic psychologists seek to describe the human abilities and errors involved in the driving process. This paper provides a comprehensive review of these two research streams. It is necessary to consider human-factors in {CF} modeling for a more realistic representation of {CF} behavior in complex driving situations (for example, in traffic breakdowns, crash-prone situations, and adverse weather conditions) to improve traffic safety and to better understand widely-reported puzzling traffic flow phenomena, such as capacity drop, stop-and-go oscillations, and traffic hysteresis. While there are some excellent reviews of {CF} models available in the literature, none of these specifically focuses on the human factors in these models. This paper addresses this gap by reviewing the available literature with a specific focus on the latest advances in car-following models from both the engineering and human behavior points of view. In so doing, it analyses the benefits and limitations of various models and highlights future research needs in the area.

Informal caring networks for people at end of life: Building social capital in Australian communities

The care of a person living at home near the end of their life is predominantly provided by family carers with the support of health services such as palliative care. In addition, informal caring networks also contribute at times to the support to the dying person and their carer. In this way, these networks can promote social capital in the communities from which they are drawn. This social approach to end of life care enhances community capacity to provide support to those dying at home and their carers. This article examines relevant published literature to explore the conceptual foundations of informal caring networks, examining the place of social capital and community development in the provision of end of life care at home, particularly in the Australian context.