Corrosion resistance of steel with hot-dipped galvanized zinc and zinc alloy coatings in seawater

Hot-dipped galvanized zinc and zinc alloy coatings were used as the hot-dipped low alloy zinc coatings (aluminum content less than protective metallic coatings for steel structures in seawater in Chi- or equal to 10 wt%) is equal to or even lower than that of the pure na. Corrosion of the two coatings immersed in sea water in Qingdao zinc sheet, while the performance of the hot-dipped high alloy zinc and Xiamen for 6 years were introduced and analyzed, which pro-coatings is higher than that of the pure zinc sheet. The hot-dipped vides a basis for further development and applications of these coat- high alloy zinc coatings can be further developed for optimal tings in China. Tests proved that the anti-corrosion performance of formance in the future.

Carbon Dioxide Exchange Between the Atmosphere and an Alpine Shrubland Meadow During the Growing Season on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau

In the present study, we used the eddy covariance method to measure CO2 exchange between the atmosphere and an alpine shrubland meadow ecosystem (37°36'N, 101°18'E; 3 250 m a.s.l.) on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, China, during the growing season in 2003, from 20 April to 30 September. This meadow is dominated by formations of Potentilla fruticosa L. The soil is Mol-Cryic Cambisols. During the study period, the meadow was not grazed. The maximum rates of CO2 uptake and release derived from the diurnal course of CO2 flux were -9.38 and 5.02 μmol•m-2•s-1, respectively. The largest daily CO2 uptake was 1.7 g C•m-2•d-1 on 14 July, which is less than half that of an alpine Kobresia meadow ecosystem at similar latitudes. Daily CO2 uptake during the measurement period indicated that the alpine shrubland meadow ecosystem may behave as a sink of atmospheric CO2 during the growing season. The daytime CO2 uptake was correlated exponentially or linearly with the daily photo synthetic photon flux density each month. The daytime average water use efficiency of the ecosystem was 6.47 mg CO2/g H2O. The efficiency of the ecosystem increased with a decrease in vapor pressure deficit.

Growing season ecosystem respirations and associated component fluxes in two alpine meadows on the Tibetan Plateau

From 30 June to 24 September in 2003 ecosystem respiration (Re) in two alpine meadows on the Tibetan Plateau were measured using static chamber- and gas chromatography- (GC) based techniques. Simultaneously, plant removal treatments were set to partition Re into plant autotrophic respiration (Ra) and microbial heterotrophic respiration (Rh). Results indicated that Re had clear diurnal and seasonal variation patterns in both of the meadows. The seasonal variability of Re at both meadow sites was caused mainly by changes in Ra, rather than Rh. Moreover, at the Kobresia humilis meadow site (K_site), Ra and Rh accounted for 54% and 46% of Re, respectively. While at the Potentilla fruticosa scrub meadow (P_site), the counterparts accounted for 61% and 39%, respectively. T test showed that there was significant difference in Re rates between the two meadows (t = 2.387, P = 0.022). However, no significant difference was found in Rh rates, whereas a significant difference was observed in Ra rates between the two meadows. Thus, the difference in Re rate between the two meadows was mainly attributed to plant autotrophic respirations. During the growing season, the two meadows showed relatively low Q(10) values, suggesting that Re, especially Rh was not sensitive to temperature variation in the growing season. Additionally, Re and Rh at the K_site, as well as Rh at the P_site was negatively correlated with soil moisture, indicating that soil moisture would also play an important role in respirations.

Behavioural responses by yaks in different physiological states (lactating, dry or replacement heifers), when grazing natural pasture in the spring (dry and germinating) season on the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau

Using heterogeneous vegetation in alpine grassland through grazing is a necessary component of deintensification of livestock systems and conservation of natural environments. However, better understanding of the dynamics of animal feeding behaviour would improve pasture and livestock grazing managements, particularly in the early part of the spring season when forage is scarce. The changes in behaviour may improve the use of poor pastures. Then, enhancing management practices may conserve pasture and improve animal productivity. Grazing behaviour over 24 In periods by yaks in different physiological states (lactating, dry and replacement heifers) was recorded in the early, dry and later, germinating period of the spring season. Under conditions of inadequate forage, the physiological state of yaks was not the primary factor affecting their grazing and ruminating behaviour. Forage and sward state affected yaks' grazing and ruminating behaviour to a greater extent. Generally, yaks had higher intake and spent more time grazing and ruminating during the later part of the spring season, following germination of forage, than during the earlier dry part of the season. However, the live weight of yaks was less during pasture germination than during the early dry part of the season because the herbage mass is low, and the yaks have to expend much energy to seek feed at this particular time. (c) 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Grazing behavior of lactating and non-lactating yaks in the summer season of the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau

The effect of the physiological states of lactating vs. non-lactating (dry) on grazing behavior and herbage intake by yaks was examined in the summer season in the Qinghai alpine area under continuous stocking management. Intake rates were estimated over periods of 1 h by weighing the animals before and after grazing, retaining the feces and urine excreted, and applying a correction for insensible weight loss (the 1-h weight changes of yaks when non-eating before or after the intake rate measurement). It is hypothesized that the lactating yaks should eat more and spend more time eating than nonlactating yaks, because they expend more energy. In our experiment, there were no differences in the effect of physiological state (lactating vs. dry) of yaks observed on the rate of insensible weight loss, intake rate, grazing jaw movement rate, bites per grazing jaw movement, or bite mass. The dry yaks tended to eat more and spend more time eating than lactating yaks, but not significantly so. Compared with the dry yaks, the lactating yaks had a significantly lower bite rate and bites per bolus.

Effects of forage composition and growing season on methane emission from sheep in the Inner Mongolia steppe of China

Understanding the effects of dietary composition on methane (CH4) production of sheep can help us to understand grassland degradation resulting in an increase of CH4 emission from ruminant livestock and its resulting significance affecting CH4 source/sink in the grazing ecosystem. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of forage composition in the diet of sheep in July and August on CH4 production by sheep in the Inner Mongolia steppe. The four diet treatments were: (1) Leymus chinensis and Cleistogenes squarrosa (LC), (2) Leymus chinensis, Cleistogenes squarrosa and concentrate supplementation (LCC), (3) Artemisia frigida and Cleistogenes squarrosa (AC), and (4) Artemisia frigida, Cleistogenes squarrosa and concentrate supplementation (ACC). CH4 production was significantly lower in July than in August (31.4 and 36.2 g per sheep-unit per day, respectively). The daily average CH4 production per unit of digestive dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM) and neutral detergent fiber (NDF) increased by 10.9, 11.2 and 42.1% for the AC diet compared with the LC diet, respectively. Although concentrate supplementation in both the AC and LC diets increased total CH4 production per sheep per day, it improved sheep productivity and decreased CH4 production by 14.8, 12.5 and 14.8% per unit of DM, OM and NDF digested by the sheep, respectively. Our results suggested that in degraded grassland CH4 emission from sheep was increased and concentrate supplementation increased diet use efficiency. Sheep-grazing ecosystem seems to be a source of CH4 when the stocking rate is over 0.5 sheep-units ha(-1) during the growing season in the Inner Mongolia steppe.

The effect of supplementary feeds on the bodyweight of yaks in cold season

The present study was conducted to determine the effects of supplementary feeds, oat hay (OH), highland barley straw (HBS) and multi-nutrient blocks supplementation (UMMB) on reducing liveweight losses of both yak cows and calves grazed on low quality pastures during cold season. The trials of OH and HBS supplementation were conducted by using completely random design on 104 yak cows between 6 and 12 years of age as the following treatments: pure grazing (41 animals, body weight 230 67 kg) as control (CK); grazing+1.5 kg DM of OH per head daily (30 animals, body weight 216 28 kg); gazing. 1.5 kg DM of HBS per head daily (33 animals, body weight 221 34 kg). The trial of UMMB was conducted on three types of yaks, 1-year calves (8-12 months old, body weight 61.1 6.9 kg), 2-year calves (18-24 months old, 98.0 11.3 kg) and yak cows (164.5 27.1 (S.D.) kg) with 20 animals in control group (CK) and 20 animals in supplement group for each type by using completely random design as the following treatments: pure grazing for CK group; grazing+ 150, 250 and 500 g UMMB per day averagely for 1-year calf, 2-year calf and cow at night. The results indicate that the animals supplemented with oat hay received body weight gain (32 20.7 g day(-1)), while those supplemented with highland barley straw still suffered from body weight loss (-56.7 39.3 a day(-1)); UMMB supplementation can decrease the body weight loss by 109.7%, 86.6% and 63.4% for the 1-year calves, 2-year calves and yak cows, respectively, as compared with pure grazing. Around US$1.60 output can be achieved on the basis of US$1 input for UMMB supplementation in the farming systems of the 1-year calves, 2-year calves and yak cows, while US$1 input can produce US$1.55 and 1.14 output for OH and FIBS supplementations, respectively, in yak cows' farming system. It can be preliminary concluded that UMMB supplementation was the most economic way to alleviate body weight loss of grazing yaks over cold season, and the higher productive returns were obtained from OH supplementation for grazing yak cows during winter/spring months. © 2004 Elsevier B.V All rights reserved.

A modified TRIMP to quantify the in-season training load of team sport players

Thatcher, Rhys, et al., 'A modified TRIMP to quantify the in-season training load of team sport players', Journal of Sport Sciences, (2007) 25(6) pp.629-634 RAE2008

Body composition and bone mineral density changes during a premier league season as measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry

Wallace, Joanne, et al., 'Body composition and bone mineral density changes during a premier league season as measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry', International Journal of Body Composition Research (2006) 4(2) pp.61-66 RAE2008

Monitoring the vegetation start of season (SOS) across the island of Ireland using the MERIS global vegetation index

The aim of this study was to develop a methodology, based on satellite remote sensing, to estimate the vegetation Start of Season (SOS) across the whole island of Ireland on an annual basis. This growing body of research is known as Land Surface Phenology (LSP) monitoring. The SOS was estimated for each year from a 7-year time series of 10-day composited, 1.2 km reduced resolution MERIS Global Vegetation Index (MGVI) data from 2003 to 2009, using the time series analysis software, TIMESAT. The selection of a 10-day composite period was guided by in-situ observations of leaf unfolding and cloud cover at representative point locations on the island. The MGVI time series was smoothed and the SOS metric extracted at a point corresponding to 20% of the seasonal MGVI amplitude. The SOS metric was extracted on a per pixel basis and gridded for national scale coverage. There were consistent spatial patterns in the SOS grids which were replicated on an annual basis and were qualitatively linked to variation in landcover. Analysis revealed that three statistically separable groups of CORINE Land Cover (CLC) classes could be derived from differences in the SOS, namely agricultural and forest land cover types, peat bogs, and natural and semi-natural vegetation types. These groups demonstrated that managed vegetation, e.g. pastures has a significantly earlier SOS than in unmanaged vegetation e.g. natural grasslands. There was also interannual spatio-temporal variability in the SOS. Such variability was highlighted in a series of anomaly grids showing variation from the 7-year mean SOS. An initial climate analysis indicated that an anomalously cold winter and spring in 2005/2006, linked to a negative North Atlantic Oscillation index value, delayed the 2006 SOS countrywide, while in other years the SOS anomalies showed more complex variation. A correlation study using air temperature as a climate variable revealed the spatial complexity of the air temperature-SOS relationship across the Republic of Ireland as the timing of maximum correlation varied from November to April depending on location. The SOS was found to occur earlier due to warmer winters in the Southeast while it was later with warmer winters in the Northwest. The inverse pattern emerged in the spatial patterns of the spring correlates. This contrasting pattern would appear to be linked to vegetation management as arable cropping is typically practiced in the southeast while there is mixed agriculture and mostly pastures to the west. Therefore, land use as well as air temperature appears to be an important determinant of national scale patterns in the SOS. The TIMESAT tool formed a crucial component of the estimation of SOS across the country in all seven years as it minimised the negative impact of noise and data dropouts in the MGVI time series by applying a smoothing algorithm. The extracted SOS metric was sensitive to temporal and spatial variation in land surface vegetation seasonality while the spatial patterns in the gridded SOS estimates aligned with those in landcover type. The methodology can be extended for a longer time series of FAPAR as MERIS will be replaced by the ESA Sentinel mission in 2013, while the availability of full resolution (300m) MERIS FAPAR and equivalent sensor products holds the possibility of monitoring finer scale seasonality variation. This study has shown the utility of the SOS metric as an indicator of spatiotemporal variability in vegetation phenology, as well as a correlate of other environmental variables such as air temperature. However, the satellite-based method is not seen as a replacement of ground-based observations, but rather as a complementary approach to studying vegetation phenology at the national scale. In future, the method can be extended to extract other metrics of the seasonal cycle in order to gain a more comprehensive view of seasonal vegetation development.

Hot-embossed polymer microneedles

Science Foundation Ireland (CSET - Centre for Science, Engineering and Technology, Grant No. 07/CE/11147)

Studies on factors relating to the development of defects in commercial cheese

Defects in commercial cheese result in a downgrading of the final cheese and a consequential economic loss to the cheese producer. Developments of defects in cheese are often not fully understood and therefore not controllable by the producer. This research investigated the underlying factors in the development of split and secondary fermentation defect and of pinking defects in commercial Irish cheeses. Split defect in Swiss-type cheese is a common defect associated with eye formation and manifests as slits and cracks visible in the cut cheese loaf (Reinbold, 1972; Daly et al., 2010). No consensus exists as to the definitive causes of the defect and possible factors which may contribute to the defect were reviewed. Models were derived to describe the relationship between moisture, pH, and salt levels and the distance from sample location to the closest external block surface during cheese ripening. Significant gradients within the cheese blocks were observed for all measured parameters in cheeses at 7 day post/after manufacture. No significant pH gradient was found within the blocks on exit from hot-room ripening and at three months post exit from the hot-room. Moisture content reached equilibrium within the blocks between exit from hot-room and 3 months after exit from hot-room while salt and salt-to-moisture levels had not reached equilibrium within the cheese blocks even at three months after exit from hot-room ripening. A characterisation of Swiss-type cheeses produced from a seasonal milk supply was undertaken. Cheeses were sampled on two days per month of the production year, at three different times during the manufacturing day, at internal and external regions of the cheese block and at four ripening time points (7 days post manufacture, post hot-room, 14 days post hot-room and 3 months in a cold room after exit from hot-room). Compositional, biochemical and microbial indices were determined, and the results were analysed as a splitplot with a factorial arrangement of treatments (season, time of day, area) on the main plot and ripening time on the sub-plot. Season (and interactions) had a significant effect on pH and salt-in-moisture levels (SM), mean viable counts of L. helveticus, propionic acid and non-starter lactic acid bacteria, levels of primary and secondary proteolysis and cheese firmness. Levels of proteolysis increased significantly during hot-room ripening but also during cold room storage, signifying continued development of cheese ripening during cold storage (> 8°C). Rheological parameters (e.g. springiness and cohesiveness) were significantly affected by interactions between ripening and location within cheese blocks. Time of day of manufacture significantly affected mean cheese calcium levels at 7 days post manufacture and mean levels of arginine and mean viable counts of NSLAB. Cheeses produced during the middle of the production day had the best grading scores and were more consistent compared to cheeses produced early or late during day of manufacture. Cheeses with low levels of S/M and low values of resilience were associated with poor grades at 7 days post manufacture. Chesses which had high elastic index values and low values of springiness in the external areas after exit from hot-room ripening also obtained good commercial grades. Development of a pink colour defect is an intermittent defect in ripened cheese which may or may not contain an added colourant, e.g., annatto. Factors associated with the defect were reviewed. Attempts at extraction and identification of the pink discolouration were unsuccessful. The pink colour partitioned with the water insoluble protein fraction. No significant difference was observed between ripened control and defect cheese for oxygen levels and redox potential or for the results of elemental analysis. A possible relationship between starter activity and defect development was established in cheeses with added coulourant, as lower levels of residual galactose and lactose were observed in defective cheese compared to control cheese free of the defect. Swiss-type cheese without added colourant had significantly higher levels of arginine and significantly lower lactate levels. Flow cell cytometry indicated that levels of bacterial cell viability and metabolic state differed between control and defect cheeses (without added colourant). Pyrosequencing analysis of cheese samples with and without the defect detected the previously unreported bacteria in cheese, Deinococcus thermus (a potential carotenoid producer). Defective Swiss-type cheeses had elevated levels of Deinococcus thermus compared to control cheeses, however the direct cause of pink was not linked to this bacterium alone. Overall, research was undertaken on underlying factors associated with the development of specific defects in commercial cheese, but also characterised the dynamic changes in key microbial and physicochemical parameters during cheese ripening and storage. This will enable the development of processing technologies to enable seasonal manipulation of manufacture protocols to minimise compositional and biochemical variability and to reduce and inhibit the occurrence of specific quality defects.